1.1.3. Kachru's three concentric circles
In his investigation of the spread of English, Braj Kachru
(1985) presents a model that consists of three circles each one representing a
particular group of countries on the basis of the situation and the use of
English in them (see Figure 1 below).
Figure 1: The three circles of English according to
Kashru (1985) with estimates of speaker numbers in millions according to
Crystal (1997) (Graddol, 1997, p. 10)
Expanding
100-1000
Inner
320-380
Outer
150-300
The Inner Circle (at the centre), represents the countries
where English is the primary language and it includes the United Kingdom, the
United States of America, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. These countries
are said to represent what is called native speakers of English. He also refers
to them as «norm- providing» (Kachru, 1985) countries since the norms
of English use are derived from them. The
second circle, which is called the Outer Circle, represents
countries where English is one of two or more official languages and used in a
variety of functions. Examples of such countries are mainly former colonies of
Britain such as India, Malaysia, Pakistan, South Africa, Nigeria, and Ghana.
Kachru calls such countries «norm-developing» (ibid) countries since
they are developing their own varieties. Some examples for such category are
Singaporean English and Indian English. The third circle, which is called the
Expanding Circle, includes countries where English is used as an international
language like, China, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan and Zimbabwe. These countries,
according to Kachru, are «norm-dependent» (ibid) as they are not
developing their own varieties of English.
If we follow Kachru's classification, Tunisia will fit into
this last category since English is used within the Tunisian context of English
as a foreign language. From personal observations, Tunisians and particularly
Tunisian university students, tend to view English as a necessary language to
master nowadays. However, some conditions that are going to be discussed
further in chapter five prevent most of them from learning it sufficiently.
1.2. Explanations of English spread worldwide
In order to investigate the variety of explanations suggested
to explain the worldwide emergence of English consulting references from
researchers like Crystal (2003), Phillipson (1992), and Graddol (1997) is
needed. Exploring their findings, this section investigates the historical,
political, economic, and practical reasons for the emergence of English around
the globe.
1.2.1. Historical reasons
One of the explanations suggested with regard to the emergence of
English is the historical factor. In fact, researchers such as Crystal (2003)
reported that English
benefited from being the language of Britain, which was a huge
empire during the 19th and 20th century especially.
Consulting Phillipson (1992) in his provocative Linguistic imperialism,
one could realise the difference between his perspective and that of
Crystal (2003). Phillipson emphasised, for instance, the persistent role of
Britain in imposing English on its colonies. Therefore, it could be deduced
that this imposition is in his account an important factor behind the
influential presence of English in many countries today. There is no
coincidence in the fact that in former British colonies, like India and Egypt,
English occupies an important status in education, media, governmental
documents, and trade. Crystal (2003) proposes the same idea but presenting the
emergence of English as an ordinary and totally positive spread. As a
conclusion, it could be said that making English the language of instruction in
those countries is a colonial heritage. However, the historical reasons were
not to happen without political motives that are the concern of the forthcoming
sub-section.
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