IV.2.3 - Explain the differences
between the kinds of meanings
After teaching the differences between the types of meanings,
the teacher should tell the differences between the kindss of meanings within
each type of meaning. He should tell the students the differences between
necessity and obligation, probability and possibility, necessity and
advisability, etc., and lay emphasis on meanings according to chart 12; and
more on those expressed by MUST, MAY, etc. according to chart 9.
IV.2.4- Encourage the use of modals
The teacher should encourage his students to use modals to
express meanings according to the scale given in chart 19. He should put
emphasis on the expression of probability, giving permission, possibility, etc.
by insisting on the use of WILL, MUST, CAN, etc. as shown in chart 23; and try
to balance their preference of modals taking into account the results of chart
25, that is make them use more the modals they prefer the least.
IV.2.5- Further suggestions
Unlike most textbooks which present modals by giving the modal
followed by its different meanings, we suggest that students should be taught
the meanings of modals. Instead of going from modal to meanings, we suggest to
go from meaning to modals. Instead of saying to students «MUST expresses
obligation», or «CAN expresses possibility»,
it would be better to say «obligation» is expressed by
MUST, SHALL and WILL». By doing so, students will be able to express their
thoughts and feelings.
The teacher should make students learn modals
actively. He may teach them vainly if he
spends his time teaching recognition of meanings such as
«What is the meaning of must in the following sentence?» The
teacher should train students to produce modals. We recognize that modals are
so many, and meanings are close one to the other, which make the mastery
difficult. The rule is «Practice makes perfect». Some practical
exercises are given in the appendix IV.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have assessed the use of the English modals
by first year students at the department of Anglophone Studies by means of an
experimental test as a device for data collection. Our investigation mainly
consisted in ascertaining whether the students of first year made differences
between the epistemic meanings and the deontic meanings of modals and whether
the incomprehension of the meanings of modals and their inappropriate uses
pertained to the fact that modals have both deontic and epistemic meanings.
In light of our survey, students were found to have a patchy
knowledge about the English modals. However, the incomprehension and the wrong
uses of modals were not found only in the types of meanings but also, and even
more in the kinds of meanings. We then made some suggestions to improve
students' knowledge of the English modals. We do not pretend that our
suggestions are the best ones. That is why we suggested that researchers and
practitioners would evaluate even more the validity of our suggestions.
This work was not done without difficulties. Constraints of
time and the lack of money limited our field of research. As an academic
dissertation the piece of research was to be completed within a reasonable time
limit; and as a student we could not take out subscriptions to many libraries
and websites. Additionally, there was a lack of experience to conduct research,
all the more so in English as we learned English as a foreign language.
Moreover, we have never been teacher. Our teaching suggestions may appear too
theoretical. In spite of these hindrances, this first experience in conducting
research was worthwhile and enjoyable and we do believe that the reached
results are reliable.
We hope that this paper will be of good avail to researchers
and teacher trainers and particularly to teachers who may find in this book a
new way of teaching modals. However, the suggestions should be adjusted to
their students' level. As for researchers, further research need to be done on
other modal words, modal-like forms, periphrastic modals, the past tense of
modals, negation with modals, answer to questions with modals; and some
contrastive studies of the use of modals by girls and boys, repeaters and
newcomers, English modality system and students' native languages modality
systems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, G. and Yule G. 1983. Discourse
Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Celce - Murcia, M. and Larsen - Freeman D.
1983. The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL
Teachers' Course. Rowley, Massachussetts: Newbury
House Publishers Inc.
Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Crystal, D. (ed.) 1996. A Dictionary of
Linguistics and Phonetics. 4th ed. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
Feigenbaum, I. 1985. The Grammar
Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.
Giglioli, P. P. (ed) 1972. Language and
Social Context. Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin.
Huddleston, I.R. 1984. Introduction to the
Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hudson, R.A. 2000. Sociolinguistics.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krupp, J. and Tenuta L. 2002. The Modal
Book: Arround the World whith Joe and Lisa.
Montpellier: Pro Linga.
Leech, G. N. 1987. Meaning and the English
Verb. 2nd ed. London: Longman.
Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lhérété, A. and Ploton J. M.
1990. L'anglais pratique: grammaire expliquée. Paris:
Longman France.
McCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for
Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Palmer, F.R. 1986. Mood and Modality.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Powell, R. R. and Connaway. L. S. 2004.
Basic Research Methods for Librarians. 4th ed.
[C] Ronald R. Powell and Lynn Silipigni Connaway U.S.A.:
Library Unlimited.
www.lu.com
Richards, J. Platt,J. and Weber, H. 1985.
Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. London: Longman.
Wardhaugh, R. 2003. Understanding English
Grammar: A Linguistic Approach.2nd ed.
Oxford: Basil Blacwell. Associates Publishers.
www.ProlinguaAssociates.com
Wehmeier, S., Lea D., Florio, J., Parkinson, D. and
Ashly,M. (ed). 1974. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
Current English.3RD ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
2000. Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary of Current English. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
APPENDIX I: FORMS OF
MODALS
FORMS OF MODALS
(i) Modals can occur with n't:
we mustn't do it.
(ii) They appear before other auxiliaries:
they should be going
(i) They serve as tags:
you can play football, can't you?
(ii) They do not co-occur:
*they might will come tomorrow
they might come tomorrow
(v) They never take a final s:
*she cans call you today
she can call you today
(vi) Modals have no non-finite form:
*she wants to can speak German
she wants to be able to speak German
(vii) They have no imperatives
*can be here!
(viii) MUST has no morphologically past tense form
Historically
Historically
Present tense forms past tense
forms
CAN COULD
WILL WOULD
MAY MIGHT
SHALL SHOULD
MUST /
(ix) There are suppletive negative forms
he may be there ___ he cant' be there
he must be there ___ he needn't be there
(x) There are formal differences between the modal verbs, in
their epistemic and deontic senses, in terms of negation and tense. The
negative form mustn't is generally used only deontically, as in: He
must be in his office. The only way of expressing the negative of epistemic
MUST is to use can't: He can't be in his office.
(xi) The verb which follows a modal is always in the base
form.
*He may comes next week.
He may come next week.
(xii) Short answers with modals never include the main verbs,
unless it is BE. But they always include any other auxiliaries.
Shouldn't he be there?
Yes, he should be.
Could they have gotten lost?
Yes, they could have.
Would we have been on time?
No, we wouldn't have been;
or
Yes, we wouldn't have.
(xiii) The negative is formed by putting not
after the modal auxiliary; the auxiliary do (do, does, or
did) is not used.
*she does not can speak English.
She cannot speak English.
(xiv) questions are formed by putting the auxiliary in front
of
the subject (s); the auxiliary do (do, does, or
did) is not
used.
*Does she may come.
May she come?
(xv) Sometimes both members of a pair (will/would,
shall/should, may/might, can/could) can be used in
describing a present or future
situation.
- present tense form; future situation.
Tomorrow, the car may be late.
- past tense form; future situation.
Tomorrow, the car might be late.
(xvi) There are several contractions.
Full forms contractions
(more formal) (less formal, to use in
conversation)
Will / shall 'll
Would / should 'd
Might not mightn't
Cannot/ can not can't
Could not couldn't
Shall not shan't
Should not shoudn't
Will not won't
Would not wouldn't
APPENDIX II: TESTS ON
MODALS
IDENTIFICATION OF THE STUDENT
Dot the square corresponding to your answer
Sex: F M
Are you repeating this class? YES
NO
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEST N° 1 (Recognition or comprehension)
PART ONE
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Invitation / Permission / Advisability / Necessity / Obligation /
General request /Asking for permission.
e.g. [The teacher is talking to Bob]
Bob, you may leave the room Meaning
Permission
1-You should marry her if you want to be happy.
Meaning .........
2-You must see a doctor, father. Meaning
.........
3-You shall go to school because I (father) say so.
Meaning .........
4- Shall we meet tonight? There is a dancing party to John's.
Meaning .........
5- You may smoke here, I don't mind.
Meaning.........
6- Must I answer these questions?
Meaning .........
7- May they go with us? I want your opinion.
Meaning .........
PART TWO
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Possibility / Probability / Certainty.
e.g. That can be true.
Meaning possibility
1-They should be waiting for her. They're late.
Meaning ............
2-The illness might be fatal.
Meaning ............
3-That will be Dick. I was expecting him to call me.
[On hearing the telephone ring]
Meaning ............
PART THREE
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Asking for Permission / Possibility / General Request / Giving
permission / Necessity / Probability / Obligation / Certainty / Advisability /
Invitation.
1- They must know that. Meaning
..........
2- He should be in Paris by now. (Because his plane took off
early) Meaning .........
3- James will sing at the party. (Because he always does)
Meaning .........
4- You can swim. Meaning
.........
5- You may leave. (Now that you have answered my questions)
Meaning .........
6- He must have a wife. (Because he said he was married)
Meaning .........
7- He will go to war. (Or my name is not Captain Blood)
Meaning .........
8- You should tell your parents about this. (Because they can
guide you) Meaning .........
9- You may go tomorrow. (Or you may not_ I'm not sure)
Meaning .........
10- He must do it. (Or we are lost)
Meaning .........
TEST N°2 (PRODUCTION)
PART FOUR
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / Shall / Must / Could / Would /
Might / Should / May.
e.g. «What would you say if you want to tell a close
friend who needs money for an emergency that one possibility is for him
to sell his bicycle?»
- You should sell your bicycle. Meaning
[Advisability]
1- [Teacher talking to student] «you .......do your
homework before coming to class» Meaning
[obligation]
2 - [It is not forbidden] «You................ smoke
here» Meaning [permission]
3 - I think that your girlfriend does not write to you enough.
I recommend her to do so. Therefore, I say,
«Your girlfriend............write you letters».
Meaning [advisability]
4 - Honey, you are very sick, you..............take these
tablets
to feel well Meaning [necessity]
5 - [You want to invite your friend to a party.] You say,
«..............we meet on Monday?»
Meaning [invitation]
6 - Sir, I have been waiting for hours, ............ I go now?
Meaning [asking for permission]
7 - You want to know if it is possible that a friend helps
you:
«...............you help me with this job?»
Meaning [general request]
PART FIVE
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / May / Shall / Must / Could /
Would / Might / Should.
e.g.1. Someone is knocking at the door. That could be Sali.
Meaning [weak inference]
e.g.2. someone is knocking at the door. That should be Sali.
Meaning [very strong inference]
1 - The meat.......be ready by now, though it may need
a few more minutes. Meaning
[probability]
2 - It.......rain tomorrow. I'm 100% certain of it.
Meaning [certainty]
3 - It.......rain tomorrow. I'm 50% certain of it
Meaning [possibility]
PART SIX
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / May / Shall / Must / Could
/ Would / Might / Should.
1 - .......you lend me your pen? (I want your
willingness.) Meaning [general request]
2 - You.......go to school, (whether you like it or not.)
Meaning [obligation]
3 - I remember that the teacher has repeated this rule over
and over again; I shall no longer study other rules.
The test.......be about this rule (this is my conclusion)
Meaning [probability]
4 - Student A: «.......you come back by the end of the
week?»
Student B: «I am afraid; my mother will not allow me
to.» Meaning [permission]
5 - My son, why do you tell that girl all your secrets?
Don't you know that a girl.......betray her lover?
Meaning [possibility]
6 - It is a characteristic fact about life that accidents
happen.
So, whatever you do, accidents....... happen.
(you cannot avoid them) Meaning
[certainty]
7 - They.......study at least five hours tonight if they want
to graduate. Meaning
[advisability]
8 - She.......be here. Meaning
[possibility or permission]
9 - A person.......have a valid passport in order to travel
to foreign countries. Meaning
[necessity]
10 - He.......be in his office. Meaning
[obligation or probability]
APPENDIX III:
CORRECTION OF THE TESTS
IDENTIFICATION OF THE STUDENT
Dot the square corresponding to your answer
Sex: F M
Are you repeating this class? YES
NO
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TEST N° 1 (Recognition or comprehension)
PART ONE
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Invitation / Permission / Advisability / Necessity / Obligation /
General request /Asking for permission.
e.g. [The teacher is talking to Bob]
Bob, you may leave the room Meaning
Permission
1-You should marry her if you want to be happy.
Meaning: Advisability
2-You must see a doctor, father. Meaning:
Necessity
3-You shall go to school because I (father) say so.
Meaning: Obligation
4- Shall we meet tonight? There is a dancing party to John's.
Meaning: Invitation
5- You may smoke here, I don't mind.
Meaning: Giving permission
6- Must I answer these questions? Meaning:
General request
7- May they go with us? I want your opinion.
Meaning: Asking for permission
PART TWO
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Possibility/Probability /Certainty.
e.g. That can be true.
Meaning: Possibility
1 - They should be waiting for her. They're late.
Meaning: Probability
2 - The illness might be fatal.
Meaning: Possibility
3 - That will be Dick. I was expecting him to call me.
Meaning: Certainty
[On hearing the telephone ring]
PART THREE
Write the meaning of the modal for the sentences according to
the context: Asking for Permission / Possibility / General Request / Giving
permission / Necessity / Probability / Obligation / Certainty / Advisability /
Invitation.
1 - They must know that. Meaning:
Obligation/Probability
2 - He should be in Paris by now.
(Because his plane took off early)
Meaning: Probability
3 - James will sing at the party. (Because he always does)
Meaning: Certainty
4 - You can swim. Meaning:
Possibility/Giving permission
5 - You may leave.
(Now that you have answered my questions)
Meaning: Giving permission
6 - He must have a wife.
(Because he said he was married)
Meaning: Probability
7 - He will go to war.
(Or my name is not Captain Blood)
Meaning: Obligation
8 - You should tell your parents about this.
(Because they can guide you) Meaning:
Advisability
9 - You may go tomorrow.
(Or you may not_ I'm not sure) Meaning:
Possibility
10 - He must do it. (Or we are lost)
Meaning: Necessity
TEST N°2 (PRODUCTION)
PART FOUR
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / Shall / Must / Could / Would /
Might / Should / May.
e.g. «What would you say if you want to tell a close
friend who needs money for an emergency that one possibility is for him
to sell his bicycle?»
- You should sell your bicycle.
Meaning [Advisability]
1 - [Teacher talking to student] «You must do your
homework before coming to class»
Meaning [obligation]
2 - [It is not forbidden] «You can smoke
here» Meaning [permission]
3 - I think that your girlfriend does not write to you enough.
I recommend her to do so. Therefore, I say,
«Your girlfriend should write you
letters». Meaning [advisability]
4 - Honey, you are very sick, you must take
these tablets to feel well
Meaning [necessity]
5 - [You want to invite your friend to a party.]
You say, «Shall we meet on Monday?»
Meaning [invitation]
6 - Sir, I have been waiting for hours,
might/may/can/could I go now? Meaning
[asking for permission]
7 - You want to know if it is possible that a friend helps
you:
«Can/will you help me with this job?»
Meaning [general request]
PART FIVE
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / May / Shall / Must / Could /
Would / Might / Should.
e.g.1. Someone is knocking at the door. That could be Sali.
Meaning [weak inference]
e.g.2. someone is knocking at the door. That should be Sali.
Meaning [very strong inference]
1 - The meat should be ready by now, though it may need
a few more minutes. Meaning
[probability]
2 - It will rain tomorrow. I'm 100% certain of it.
Meaning [certainty]
3 - It may rain tomorrow. I'm 50% certain of it.
Meaning [possibility]
PART SIX
Use the right modal for the sentences according to the meaning
indicated between square brackets: Can / Will / May / Shall / Must / Could
/ Would / Might / Should.
1 - Could/would you lend me your pen? (I want your
willingness.)Meaning [general request]
2 - You will go to school, (whether you like it or
not.) Meaning [obligation]
3 - I remember that the teacher has repeated this rule over
and over again; I shall no longer study other rules.
The test must be about this rule (this is my
conclusion) Meaning [probability]
4 - Student A: «May you come back by the end of
the week?»
Student B: «I am afraid; my mother will not allow me
to.» Meaning [permission]
5 - My son, why do you tell that girl all your secrets?
Don't you know that a girl can betray her lover?
Meaning [possibility]
6 - It is a characteristic fact about life that accidents
happen.
So, whatever you do, accidents will happen.
(You cannot avoid them) Meaning
[certainty]
7 - They should study at least five hours tonight if
they want
to graduate. Meaning
[advisability]
8 - She may be here.
Meaning [possibility or permission]
9 - A person must have a valid passport in order to
travel
to foreign countries. Meaning
[necessity]
10 - He must be in his office. Meaning
[obligation or probability]
APPENDIX IV:
PRACTICE
The following suggestions are an excerpt from the work by
Larsen-Freeman and Celce-Murcia. The authors are making suggestions to
teachers:
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
1 - Several of the social interactional modals form a
continuum from «weak suggestion» to order «commands!» this
pattern can be taught both formally and informally using thermometers as visual
aids to show the degree of necessity involved. (Remember that the different
forms do not necessarily have equal semantic distance between them.)
WILL
MUST HAFTA (HAVE TO)
HAD BETTER BETTER (had better)
SHOULD OUGHTA (ought to)
MIGHT
COULD
FORMAL
INFORMAL
Students would then be given hypothetical situations to
respond. They would have to decide whether (a) the situation is formal or
informal. (b) which degree of strength is called for. (Note: If one thermometer
is used with, say, beginners, step (a) is not necessary.) For example:
do
What will you say
if...........
Would
a. You are a teacher who wants to let a certain student know
that it is essential to come
to class on time.
b. You want to tell a close friend who needs money for
emergency that one possibility
is for him to sell his car.
c. A fellow professor is not being paid the proper salary, and
you think it would help if he saw the Dean.
2 - Other uses of social interactional modals can be taught
using dialogs. E.g.:
Teacher; Class, for tomorrow you will read Chapter 4
and do the exercises for that chapter.
Student X: (at the end of class) I can do all those
exercises. Would you please give me
another assignment?
Teacher: Do the first exercise anyway. But you may
write an easy instead of doing the
others.
Student X: Thank you. That's what I'll do.
3 - One of the uses of the logical probability modals is to
predict something such as the chance of
rain tomorrow. Show your students what degree of prediction
is expressed by each modal:
(possibility) weak, outside chance: It (could, might)
rain tomorrow.
(perhaps) stronger chance: It may very
well rain tomorrow.
(probably) strong chance: It probably
will rain tomorrow.
(likely)
(certainly) certainty: It will
rain tomorrow.
a. For oral practice, have students express (using a modal)
situations such as the following with the degree of prediction suggested by the
context (or the teacher):
(1) There's a 30 percent chance of rain tomorrow.
(2) There's an 80 percent chance of rain later today.
(3) The probability of good weather this coming weekend.
(4) The probability of man's landing on Mars during the next
20 years.
b. For written practice, have students read a paragraph or
essay using modals predictively.
Get them to describe in their own words the degree of each
prediction. Have them write their own essay on a parallel topic.
4 - The other main use of the logical modals is to make
inferences (guesses) about current
state/situations. Give your students a modal paradigm. E.g.:
Someone's knocking at the door.
weak inference: That could/might be Sydney.
stronger inference: That may be Sydney.
strong inference: That should be Sydney.
very strong inference: That must be Sydney.
absolute certainty in making an inference (rare): That will
be Sydney.
a. For oral practice, have students react to situations (using
a modal) such as the following:
(1) Student X is not in class today.
(2) Student Y is falling asleep/is thinking of something
else.
(3) The local football star has not been playing as well as
usual.
b. For written practice, one might try translation from the
student's native language into
English or vice versa as a check on comprehension (i.e.,
reading) and production
(i.e.,writing).
(Celce-Murcia,M. and Larsen-Freeman D. 1983. The Grammar
Book: An ESL/EFL Teachers' Course. Rowley, Massachussetts: Newbury House
Publishers Inc. p.p. 89-91)
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