The effect of trauma on student's learning in post genocide secondary school in Rwanda, a case of Kabuga high school

KIGALI INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

THE EFFECT OF TRAUMA ON STUDENTS' LEARNING IN

POST GENOCIDE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RWANDA

A case of Kabuga High School

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of Bachelor's Degree in Sciences with Education

SUBMITTED BY: HABYARIMANA Kalisa Maurice
Reg. N^o: 1973/04

Comb. : BGE

SUPERVISOR: Kaleeba Ali and Julie Angitso

Kigali, August 2008

To the Almighty God
To my beloved parents,
Brothers and sisters

DEDICATION

AKNOWLEDGMENT

The completion of this research is the result of joint efforts from different people. First and foremost, I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Mr. Kaleeba Ali and Julie Angisto for their support and guidance.

I would like to express my appreciation to the lectures of KIE, head teachers, staff and students of all schools for their support. Without their cooperation and help, I would not have succeeded in my academic pursuit.

I appreciate the comments, advice, and cooperation and support of my fellow students especially Mrs. Ndokoye pancreas and my classmates (BGE and BCE the 6^th promotion) Fabaceae group; Jado, Bony, Jeff and Jeici at KIE.

I also thank al those who offered a distant encouragement by mail, prayer and calls.

Habyarimana Kalisa Maurice

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

APA : American Psychological Association

BGE : Biology-Geography and Education

DSM III : Diagnostic and Statistical Manual [of Mental Disorders] 3^rd Revision

EDP : Educational Psychology

HIV/AIDS : Human Immuno-deficiency Virus/ Aquired Immuno Deficieny Syndroms

HKS : Kabuga High School

KIE : Kigali Institute of Education

MINEDUC : Ministry of Education

PTSD : Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Reg. N° : Registration Number

UNESCO : United Nations for Educational Scientific and Cultural

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Students' questionnaire Appendix 2: Teachers' questionnaire

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Sample of the students 23

Table 2: Sample of the teachers and other school staff 23

Table 3: Identification of the students 25

Table 4: The students' view about occurrence of trauma at their school 26

Table 5: Students most affected by trauma 26

Table 6: The time students with trauma take before attending normal classes 27

Table 7: The effect of trauma on other students 27

Table 8: Students' views about whether trauma interrupts the teaching-learning process in their classrooms 28

Table 9: Teachers' responses about trauma counseling 29

Table 10: Teachers' views about the occurrence of trauma in their school 29

Table 11: Teachers' views about who help traumatized students 30

Table 12: Teachers' views about the time students with trauma take before attending normal classes 31

Table 13: Teachers' view about how traumatized students affect others 31

Table 14: The teachers' view about trauma crisis and interruption of courses 32

Table 15: Trauma among teacher 33

TABLE OF CONTENT

DEDICATION i

AKNOWLEDGMENT ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION iii

LIST OF APPENDICES iv

LIST OF TABLES v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi

ABSTRACT ix

CHAPITRE: 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

1. 1 Background of the study 1

1. 2 Statement of the problem 2

1. 3 Research objectives 2

1. 4 Research questions 3

1. 5 Significance of the study 3

1. 6 Scope of the study 3

1. 7 Organization of the study 3

1. 8 Definition of important terms 4

CHAPITRE: 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2. 1 Introduction 5

2. 2 Trauma 6

2. 2. 1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 6

2. 2. 2 PSTD related Trauma 7

2. 2. 3 A brief history of PTSD 7

2. 2. 4 PTSD and other Stress 8

2. 3 Causes of trauma 8

2. 3. 1 Varieties of Man-Made Violence 9

2. 4 Symptoms of trauma 11

2. 4. 1 Common reactions to trauma: 11

2. 5 Responses to trauma 12

2. 5. 1 Normal responses to traumatic events 12

2. 5. 2 Difference in responding to traumatic events 13

2. 5. 3 How childhood trauma affects adult relationships 13

2. 6 Barrier to identify and address the needs of traumatized children 14

2. 6. 1 Cultural barriers 14

2. 6. 2 Social barrier 14

2. 7 Effects of trauma 15

2. 7. 1 Common personal and behavioral effects of trauma: 16

2. 7. 2 Common effects of trauma on interpersonal relationships: 16

2. 8 Effect of trauma on learning 16

2. 8. 1 Effects on students 16

2.8.1.1. Effects on preschool students 17

2.8.1.2. Effects on elementary school students 17

2.8.1.3. Effects on middle and high school students 17

2.8.1.4. Variations among students 18

2.8.1.5. Effects of trauma on the ability to learn 18

2. 9 Mitigation of PTSD 18

2. 10 Helping the child with PTSD 19

CHAPITRE: 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 21

3. 1 Research design 21

3. 2 Research instrument 21

3. 2. 1 Questionnaire 21

3. 2. 2 Documentation 21

3. 3 Area of the study 22

3. 4 Population 22

3. 5 Sample size and sampling techniques 22

3. 6 Validity and reliability of instrument 23

3. 7 Data processing 24

3. 7. 1 Editing 24

3. 7. 2 Tabulation 24

3. 7. 3 Data analysis 24

CHAPITRE: 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 25

4.	1		Students' views about the effect of trauma on learning		25
	4.	1.	1	Identification of students	25
	4.	1.	2	Views of students about trauma and its effect on learning	26
	4.	1.	3	Occurrence of trauma at school and the most affected	26
	4.	1.	4	The effect of trauma on other students	27
4.	2		Teachers' perception on trauma		29
	4.	2.	1	Teachers' views about training in trauma counseling	29
	4.	2.	2	Teachers' views about who help traumatized students	30
	4.	2.	3	Teachers' views about the time students with trauma take before attending normal

classes 31

4. 2. 4 Teachers' view about the effect of trauma on other students 31

4. 2. 5 The teachers' view about trauma crisis and interruption of courses 32

4. 2. 6 Trauma among teachers 33

Conclusion 34

CHAPITRE: 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 35

5. 1 Summary 35

5. 2 Conclusion 36

5. 3 Recommendation 36

5. 4 Suggestion for further research 37

REFERENCES 38

APPENDICES 40

ABSTRACT

The present study entitled «The effect of trauma on students' learning in post genocide secondary school» aimed at finding out the effect of trauma on secondary school students' learning.

It was guided by the following research questions:

- What is the effect of trauma on learning in post genocide secondary school? - How the problems of trauma are addressed in secondary schools?

- What can be the possible way to adjust trauma related problems in secondary schools

The study was conducted in Kigali City Province at Kabuga High School. Data was collected from 77 students and 9 teachers who were randomly sampled. In selecting the sample, 10% and 20% of the students and teachers respectively were taken.

The result of this study revealed that trauma negatively affects students' learning as well as academic achievement. It was found that trauma affect both the traumatized students and their counterparts who are not traumatized. The traumatized students fail to concentrate on studies and their counterparts in an effort to care for the traumatized hardly concentrate on studies.

CHAPITRE 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background of the study

In Rwanda, the 1994 genocide and war ruined the country. It did not only result in loss of one million people but also affected the socio-economic, political, and educational structures of the country. Socially, it resulted in hatred due to the fact that people who survived could not withstand seeing those who killed their relatives. However, in an attempt to rebuild the country, mechanisms to unite and reconcile people have been put for instance; National Unity and Reconciliation Commission was established with the aim of uniting people. Nevertheless, the experiences that survivors of the 1994 genocide faced become unforgettable in the sense that every year especially during the mourning week, when the whole country commemorates people who perished, cases of traumatized people are reported trough the country.

In schools, for example, many cases of traumatized students are reported. Investigations have shown that there are usually high incidences of students who become emotionally upset to the extend that the fail to attend classes. At times, traumatized students experienced difficulties in concentrating and learning at school, and engage in unusually in different behaviours. (SCPS 2006)

Furthermore, it has been reported that teachers in school face challenges in dealing with traumatized students. For instance, it was found that some teachers due to lack of knowledge about Post traumatic Stress Disorders have difficulties in differentiating between the symptoms of trauma and those of other psychological disorders. This is due partly to the fact that traumatized students at times fail to express their experiences in ways teachers who have no knowledge of trauma can readily understand. They may Lack the words to communicate their pain, they may express feelings of vulnerability by becoming aggressive or feigning disinterest in academic success because they believe they cannot succeed. Moreover they themselves may not understand why they are upset or acting out, creating a disconnect between experience, emotion, and actions (Cole, F.S et al, 2005). When teachers do not understand why a student is acting out, they are likely to focus on the behaviour not on the emotion behind it. To be able to help learners, a teacher must be knowledgeable about trauma, he/she has to understand for example that a traumatized student's disruptive behaviour often is not a matter of willful defiance, but

originates in feelings of vulnerability. Once a teacher grasps this critical insight, he will be able to work towards responding to what the student may be feeling rather than solely on the problematic behaviour.

1. 2 Statement of the problem

In Rwanda today, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among people and students in schools is attributed to the genocide of 1994 that claimed many lives of people. After the war, many people who survived students inclusive started experiencing trauma. They experienced difficulty beginning new task, blame, guilt, concern for safety, depression, inability to trust, disturbed sleep, eroded self-esteem and self-confidence, inability to concentrate. However, these symptoms were not recognized by people as signs of trauma.

In 1996, the problem of trauma in schools became very serious and it attracted the attention of the government and therefore, strategies to help students with trauma were made. A national trauma center as well as Non governmental organizations were established in order to help people with trauma. Some teachers in some schools were trained in trauma counseling and have been and still help students with trauma.

However, irrespective of the effort made to help traumatized students in schools, every year in quite number of school, classes stop for some time because of the problem of trauma among some students most especially the survivors. These occur particularly during the mourning period when they commemorate the people who perished during the 1994 genocide. This kind of situation seems to affect the teaching-learning process as well as student academic achievement. Therefore, this study intended to find out the effect of trauma on students' learning and their academic achievement.

1. 3 Research objectives

· To examine the effect of trauma on student' learning and academic achievement.

· To find out how the problem of trauma among students is addressed in schools.

· To suggest ways of how the problem of trauma in schools could be handled.

1. 4 Research questions

· What is the effect of trauma on learning in post genocide secondary school?

· How the problems of trauma are addressed in secondary schools?

· What can be the possible way to adjust trauma related problems in secondary schools

1. 5 Significance of the study

The study will provide information about trauma in schools to policy makers, researchers, psychologists and organizations that help people with psycho-social problems so that they get know the status of trauma in schools and how it is being addressed.

1. 6 Scope of the study

The study basically aimed at examining the effect of trauma on students' learning in secondary school. It was limited to Kigali city Province and in particular a case of Kabuga High School.

1. 7 Organization of the study This research is made up of five chapters:

Chapter one: is an introductory part showing the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, scope of the study and its organization.

Chapter two: shows the review of the literature related to trauma, put forward by different scholar and organizations, their interpretations and summaries.

Chapter three: concerns the methodology that was used in the study, the area of the study, sampling techniques and technique of data collection and processing, research design and problems encounter in process of data collection.

Chapter four: presents the data analysis and interpretation.

Chapter five: presents the summary of the study, conclusion and recommendations.

1. 8 Definition of important terms

Trauma: a bad experience that makes one feel upsets, afraid or shocked. Learning: The process of gaining knowledge and experience.

Genocide: The murder of a large number of people belonging to a particular group. Student: Someone who is studying at secondary school, college or university Secondary school: A school for children between the ages of 12 and 18 or 20. Effect: A change that is produced in one person or by another.

CHAPITRE 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2. 1 Introduction

The implementation of psychological services in Rwanda have focused on the most urgent and pressing requirements; the great need to from trauma. Since the mid 1990s, counseling services in Rwanda have almost exclusively focused on trauma counseling. Significant efforts and resources have been directed towards enhancing awareness and sensitivity to trauma related issues. Inputs have focused on helping key adults in the child's life recognize the symptoms of trauma and then facilitate recovery and adjustment.

Reviews of the methods used in trauma counseling indicate that techniques used have been largely external oriented requiring the client to express internal emotional states verbally or non-verbally. This is the classical approach to help a person process grief and come to terms with the loss. The objective is to move the client through the stage of shock and denial, with the ultimate therapeutic goal of finally reaching the stage of acceptance. These interventions are essential. However, it is vital to remember that therefore important that the impact of the trauma counseling provided be accessed through carefully structured outcome studies. Furthermore, the use of the self-mediated psychological techniques has been minimal. Interventions that address trauma would do well to adapt and incorporate these techniques into counseling framework.

It is important that the passage of time since traumatic events of 1994 is taken into consideration. It is well known that the highest frequency of trauma counseling is achieved when inputs are provided as close to the traumatic events as possible. It is certainly true that some children and young people could continue to be met. The majority however are likely to have moved on. Continued focus on the past could undermine psychological development.

The time is well nigh for counseling in Rwanda to take a boarder perspective and begin to address the many other psychological needs that children and adolescents present as a part of their normal development. (UNESCO: 2003)

2. 2 Trauma

Trauma is the result of extraordinarily stressful events that shatter your sense of security, making you feel helpless and vulnerable in a dangerous world. Traumatic experiences often involve a threat to life or safety, but any situation that leaves you feeling frightened and alone can be traumatic, even if it doesn't involve physical harm. Experiences involving betrayal, verbal abuse, or any major loss can be just as traumatizing as a life-threatening catastrophe, especially when they happen during childhood.

Whether the threat is physical or psychological, trauma results when an experience is so overwhelming that you freeze, go numb, or disconnect from what's happening. While this automatic response protects you from the terror you feel, it also prevents you from moving on. Despite being cut off from your trauma-related feelings, you can't escape them completely. They remain outside of conscious awareness in all their original intensity, influencing the way you see the world, react to everyday situations, and relate to others. ( http://www.helpguide.org/mental/emotional psychological trauma.htm)

2. 2. 1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is defined as the development of characteristic symptoms following exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury, or other threat to one's physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate (APA: 1996 cited by Eric 2001)

2. 2. 2 PSTD related Trauma

According to Eric (2001), by the much unexpected nature of trauma, one can totally live prepare for it. And because each individual respond differently to emotional upset, it is impossible to predict trauma after-effects. Under certain circumstances, trauma can induce PTSD. Unrecognized and untreated PTSD can have a long life negative impact on the affected individual. Teachers, who spend up to eight hours each day with the children in their charge, can influence the environment in which PTSD is less likely to develop to the point of life impact.

He goes on saying that emotionally upsetting experiences will cause PTSD. Trauma sufficient to induce PTSD has specific characteristics and circumstances, including situations like: perceived as life-threatening; outside the scope of a child's life experience; not daily, ordinary or normal event; during which the child experiences a complete loss of control of the outcome and when death is observed.

Disasters, violence, and accidents are just some of the experiences that can lead to PTSD. Preparing children for trauma involves giving them skills and knowledge to survive the experiences and emerge with as little potential as possible for developing PTSD.

2. 2. 3 A brief history of PTSD

According to Richard (2005), during the First World War, many soldiers experienced a shell shock and in the Second World War, combat fatigue was used to describe a similar reaction, characterized by terror, agitation or apathy, and insomnia.

Following the Vietnam War, the syndrome was named Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and appeared by that name in DMS-III (1980). The term describes an anxiety disorder which occurs in responses to an extreme psychological or physical trauma outside the range of normal human experiences (Thompson, 1997 cited by Richard 2005). Apart from war, such traumas include physical treat to one's self or family, witnessing other people's deaths, and being involved in natural or human-made disasters.

PTSD may occur immediately following a traumatic experience o weeks, months and even years
later. In the Vietnam War, there were relatively few cases of shell shock or combat fatigue, but

on their return to USA soldiers found it more difficult adjusting to civilians' life that did those who fought in the two world wars.

2. 2. 4 PTSD and other Stress

Research has pointed on the fact that intrusive memories are also important in depression. Reynolds and Brewin (1997) cited by Richard compared matched samples of patients with PTSD and depression. While PTSD patients were a little more likely to have intrusive memories (which are also somewhat more vivid and frequent), they are otherwise very similar. Both groups were likely to experience very vivid and high distressing memories on average several times per week and lasting several minutes per week and lasting several minutes (up to an hour). Also for both groups, they mostly accompanied by physical sensations and a feeling helpless of reliving the event. One of the few differences was that PTSD patients were likely to report feeling helpless and to have a dissociative experience, such as feeling they were leaving their body or seeing them-selves as an object in their memory.

Not everyone exposed to catastrophe reacts in the same way, says psychiatrist Randy Boddam in, http://www.soulselfhelp.on.ca/ptsdtorstar.html a major acting as clinical adviser on PTSD to the Canadian Forces' surgeon general.

Some may have no stress. Others may have post-traumatic stress. But simply feeling upset after a trauma is not a disorder.

2. 3 Causes of trauma

Trauma is caused by many factors, according to many authors, and it is a result of any experience that makes you feel terrified, helpless, unprepared or alone and those factors may be natural, technological or man-made disasters.

Trauma can result from events we have long recognized as traumatic, including:

- Natural disasters (earthquakes, fires, floods, hurricanes, etc.)

- Physical assault, including rape, incest, molestation, domestic abuse - Serious bodily harm

- Serious accidents such as automobile or other high-impact scenarios - Experiencing or witnessing horrific injury, carnage or fatalities

Other potential sources of psychological trauma are often overlooked including:

- Falls or sports injuries

- Surgery, particularly emergency, and especially in first 3 years of life - Serious illness, especially when accompanied by very high fever

- Birth trauma

- Hearing about violence to or sudden death of someone close

In addition, traumatic stress in childhood that influences the brain is caused by poor or inadequate relationship with a primary caretaker. Sources of this developmental or relational trauma include the following:

- Forced separation very early in life from primary caregiver;

- Chronic mis-attunement of caregiver to child's attachment signals ("mal-attachment") or reasons such as physical or mental illness, depression or grief.

It is acknowledged that early life trauma creates vulnerability for experiencing future traumatic responses. www.Helpguide.org

2. 3. 1 Varieties of Man-Made Violence

War/political violence: Massive in scale, severe, repeated, prolonged and unpredictable. Also multiple: witnessing, life threatening, but also doing violence to others embracing the identity of a killer.

Human rights abuses: kidnapping, torture, etc.

Rape: The largest group of people with posttraumatic stress disorder in USA. A national survey of 4000 women found that 1 in 8 reported being the victim of a forcible rape. Nearly half had been raped more than once. Nearly 1/3 was younger than 11 and over 60% were under 18.

Domestic Violence: recent studies in USA show that between 21% and 34% of women will

be assaulted by an intimate male partner.

Child Abuse: the scope of childhood trauma is staggering. Everyday children are beaten, burned, slapped, whipped, thrown, shaken, kicked and raped. According to Dr. Bruce Perry, a conservative estimate of children at risk for PTSD exceeds 15 million.

Sexual abuse: At least 40% of all psychiatric inpatients have histories of sexual abuse in childhood. Sexual abuse doesn't occur in a vacuum: is most often accompanied by other forms of stress and trauma-generally within a family.

Physical abuse: often results in violence toward others, abuse of one's own children, substance abuse, self-injurious behavior, suicide attempts, and a variety of emotional problems.

Emotional/verbal abuse Witnessing: Seeing anyone beaten is stressful; the greater your attachment to the victim, the greater the stress. Especially painful is watching violence directed towards a caregiver, leaving the child to fear losing the primary source of security in the family.

Sadistic abuse: we generally think about interpersonal violence as an eruption of passions, but the severest forms are those inflicted deliberately. Calculated cruelty can be far more terrifying than impulsive violence. Coercive control is used in settings like concentration camps, prostitution and pornography rings, and in some families.

The most personally and clinically challenging clients are those who have experienced repeated intentional violence, abuse, and neglect from childhood onward. These clients have experienced tremendous loss, the absence of control, violations of safety, and betrayal of trust. The resulting emotions are overwhelming: grief, terror, horror, rage, and anguish.

Their whole experience of identity and of the world is based upon expectations of harm and abuse. When betrayal and damage is done by a loved one who says that what he or she is doing is good and is for the child's good, the seeds of lifelong mistrust and fear are planted. Thus, the survivor of repetitive childhood abuse and neglect expects to be harmed in any helping relationship and may interact with us as though we have already harmed him or her. ( http://www.realmentalhealth.com/dissociative_disorders/psychological_trauma_01 2.asp)

2. 4 Symptoms of trauma

According to Mojab and Mcdonald (2001) cited by Digest (2002), adults experiencing the effect of past or current trauma may display such symptoms as difficulty beginning new task, blame, guilt, concern for safety, depression, inability to trust (especially those in power), fear of risk taking, disturbed sleep, eroded self-esteem and self-confidence, inability to concentrate, or panic attacks.

Some people may manifest no symptoms; at the other end of the spectrum in PTSD, characterized by flashbacks, avoidance, numbing of responsiveness (including substance abuse), persistent expectation of danger, constriction and memories impairments. (Isserlis 2001 cited by Digest 2002).

2. 4. 1 Common reactions to trauma:

· Guilt and self-blame

· Anxiety and edginess

· Mood swings and irritability

· Feeling disconnected or numb

· Distressing memories about the event

· Insomnia or bad dreams

· Withdrawing from others

· Loss of appetite

· Difficulty concentrating

· Feeling sad or hopeless

These symptoms and feelings typically last from a few days to a few months, gradually fading as you process the trauma. But even when you are feeling better, you may be troubled from time to time by painful memories or emotions especially in response to triggers such as an anniversary of the event or an image, sound, or situation that reminds you of the traumatic experience.

2. 5 Responses to trauma

There are several behavioral responses common towards stressors including the proactive, reactive, and passive responses. Proactive responses include attempts to address and correct a stressor before it has a noticeable effect on lifestyle. Reactive responses occur after the stress and possible trauma has occurred, and is aimed more at correcting or minimizing the damage of a stressful event. A passive response is often characterized by an emotional numbness or ignorance of a stressor. Those who are able to be proactive can often overcome stressors and are more likely to be able to cope well with unexpected situations. On the other hand, those who are more reactive will often experience more noticeable effects from an unexpected stressor. In the case of those who are passive, victims of a stressful event are more likely to suffer from long term traumatic effects and often enact no intentional coping actions. These observations may suggest that the level of trauma associated with a victim is related to such independent coping abilities.

There is also a distinction between trauma induced by recent situations and long-term trauma which may have been buried in the unconscious from past situations such as childhood abuse.

Trauma is often overcome through healing; in some cases this can be achieved by recreating or revisiting the origin of the trauma under more psychologically safe circumstances, such as with a therapist. ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma)

2. 5. 1 Normal responses to traumatic events

When it comes to recognizing psychological and emotional trauma, it's important to distinguish between normal reactions to traumatic events and symptoms of a more serious and persistent problem.

Following a traumatic event, most people experience a variety of emotions, including shock, fear, anger, and relief to be alive. Often, they can think or talk of little else other than what happened. Many others feel jumpy, detached, or depressed. Such reactions are neither a sign of weakness nor a positive indicator of lasting trouble. Rather, they represent a normal response to an abnormal event.

2. 5. 2 Difference in responding to traumatic events

An event can cause a traumatic response in one person and not in other cause of some factors such as:

- The severity of the event;

- The individual's personal history (which may not even be recalled);

- He larger meaning the event represents for the individual (which may not be immediately evident);

- Coping skills, values and beliefs held by the individual (some of which may have never been identified); and

- The reactions and support from family, friends, and/or professionals.

Anyone can become traumatized. Even professionals, who work with trauma, or other people close to a traumatized person, can develop symptoms of "vicarious" or "secondary" traumatization. Developing symptoms is never a sign of weakness. Symptoms should be taken seriously and steps should be taken to heal, just as one would take action to heal from a physical ailment. And just as with a physical condition, the amount of time or assistance needed to recover from emotional trauma will vary from one person to another.

Not all potentially traumatic events lead to trauma. Some people rebound quickly from even the most tragic and shocking experiences. Others are devastated by experiences that, on the surface, appear to be less upsetting. It's not the objective facts that determine whether an event is traumatic, but your subjective emotional experience of the event. The more endangered, helpless, and unprepared you feel, the more likely you are to be traumatized.

People are also more likely to be traumatized as adults if they have a history of childhood trauma or if they are already under a heavy stress load.

2. 5. 3 How childhood trauma affects adult relationships

The quality of the attachment bond between mother and baby affects the child's ability even as an adult to feel safe in the world, trust others handle stress, and rebound from disappointment. Early-life trauma disrupts this important attachment bond, resulting in adult relationship difficulties.

2. 6 Barrier to identify and address the needs of traumatized children

According to Karangwa (2003), there are some factors that hinder the identification of traumatized children such as: Cultural barriers, social barriers, and religious barriers.

2. 6. 1 Cultural barriers

Different communities have different beliefs, different values and norms that can act as barriers for any intervention when helping the victimized child; these are usually attached to taboos, stigma, attitudes and cultural practices. Some of the behaviors and practices that may act as barriers include:

· In cultures that expect girls to behave subordinately may influence girls who are victim to pretend to be a normal life

· Parents of some children may deny that any abuse has occurred

· In cultures where premarital sex is taboo, may lead to both the parents and children keeping silence on sexual abuse

· Some abuse to children may be taken to be normal practice

In some culture, children (especially girls) are not allowed to complain to adults becaseu it is taken as being disrespectful

2. 6. 2 Social barrier

From the previous unit it was realized that some of the cause of child abuse and trauma, are a result of economic hardships, family break-ups, instability and violence within the family or general society. These situations may lead to the following barriers:

- Because of the frequency of the occurrence of abuse and violence, the children may view useless to report and seek help

- They may fear for their life and that of their family, since many older stronger people do it

- Some of the children may fear to talk of such problem such as sex or crime in return for money, not only because of the stigma attached to it but also for fear of loosing the income

for the family, being beaten or arrested

- Children from violent families may try to protect their abusive parents by hiding their feeling because if they expose them they may face exclusion or loss of family support

- Some children who have been victims of social violence (war), may not like to speak about their problems because they believe that the society has betrayed them

- Some teachers trying to reach the abused child, the parents on any other community members may be taken as someone who does not value the culture and may receive repulsive response to his interest

2. 7 Effects of trauma

According to Digest (2002), it may not be readily apparent that a learner is experiencing the effect of trauma. Instead, such manifestations as missing class, avoiding tests, spacing about, and having what may be interpreted as inappropriate or extreme reaction to class discussions or activities may actually be responses to trauma. It is true that learning may be impeded by fear, anxiety, poor concentration, and the enormous energy involved in hiding abuse effects on learning are shaped by education discourses (Horsman 1997, 200b; Isserlis 2001 cited by digest 2002). A deficit perspective suggests that the learner, not the social system, must change. A medicalizing discourses emphasizes that getting over trauma must take place before learning is possible. Discourses of educational practice may view dropping out, stopping out, or spacing out/ dissociating as lack of motivation or persistence rather than survival mechanisms. Discourses focused on outcomes and accountability fail to recognize the complex issue facing learners that may interfere with achievement or program completions.

Unrecognized trauma can create lasting difficulties in an individual's life. One way to determine whether an emotional or psychological trauma has occurred, perhaps even early in life before language or conscious awareness were in place, is to look at the kinds of recurring problems one might be experiencing. These can serve as clues to an earlier situation that caused a dysregulation in the structure or function of the brain.

2. 7. 1 Common personal and behavioral effects of trauma:

- Substance abuse

- Compulsive behavior patterns

- Self-destructive and impulsive behavior

- Uncontrollable reactive thoughts

- Inability to make healthy professional or lifestyle choices - Dissociative symptoms ("splitting off" parts of the self)

- Feelings of inFrequencyness, shame, despair, hopelessness - Feeling permanently damaged

- A loss of previously sustained beliefs

2. 7. 2 Common effects of trauma on interpersonal relationships:

- Inability to maintain close relationships or choose appropriate friends and mates - Sexual problems

- Hostility

- Arguments with family members, employers or co-workers

- Social withdrawal

- Feeling constantly threatened

2. 8 Effect of trauma on learning

Steele, 2007 shows how students process trauma depends on their age and level of development. By understanding how students experience traumatic events and how they express their lingering distress over the experience, school personnel can better respond and help them through this challenging time.

2. 8. 1 Effects on students

For students, a traumatic experience may cause ongoing feelings of concern for their own safety and the safety of others. These students may become preoccupied with thoughts about their actions during the event, often times experiencing guilt or shame over what they did or did not do at the time. They might engage in constant retelling of the traumatic event, or may describe

being overwhelmed by their feelings of fear or sadness.
2.8.1.1. Effects on preschool students

Preschool students may lose recently acquired developmental milestones and may increase behaviors such as bedwetting, thumb sucking, and regress to simpler speech. They may become more clingy to their parents and worry about their parents safety and return. These young students may also become more irritable with more temper tantrums and have more difficulty calming down. A few students may show the reverse behavior and become very withdrawn, subdued, or even mute after a traumatic event. These students may have difficulties falling or staying asleep or have nightmares about the event or other bad dreams. Typically these students will process the event through post-traumatic play.

2.8.1.2. Effects on elementary school students

Elementary students may show signs of distress through somatic complaints such as stomachaches, headaches, and pains. These students may have a change in behavior, such as increase irritability, aggression, and anger. Their behaviors may be inconsistent. These students may show a change in school performance and have impaired attention and concentration and more school absences. Late elementary students may excessively talk and ask persistent questions about the event.

2.8.1.3. Effects on middle and high school students

These students exposed to a traumatic event feel self-conscious about their emotional responses to the event. They often experience feelings of shame and guilt about the traumatic event and may express fantasies about revenge and retribution. A traumatic event for adolescents may foster a radical shift in the way these students think about the world. Some of these adolescents may begin to engage in self-destructive or accident-prone behaviors, and reckless behaviors. There may be a shift in their interpersonal relationships with family members, teachers, and classmates. These students may show a change in their school performance, attendance, and behavior.

2.8.1.4. Variations among students

In spite of the ability to predict general responses to trauma depending on age and developmental level, there is still tremendous variability among students regarding post-traumatic symptoms and the extent to which learning and school behavior may be disrupted. The variety of individual responses to trauma is related to many factors, including a student's prior history of trauma or loss, prior or current mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, or behavior problems, and individual differences in temperament.

2.8.1.5. Effects of trauma on the ability to learn

A traumatic event can seriously interrupt the school routine and the processes of teaching and learning. There are usually high levels of emotional upset, potential for disruptive behaviour, or loss of student attendance unless efforts are made to reach out to students and staff with additional information and services. Students traumatized by exposure to violence have been shown to have lower grade point averages, more negative remarks in their cumulative records, and more reported absences from school than other students. They may have increased difficulties concentrating and learning at school and may engage in unusually reckless or aggressive behavior.

The involvement of the school is critical in supporting students through the emotional and physical challenges they may face following an exposure to a traumatic event.

( http://www.nctsnet.org/nccts/nav.do?pid=ctr_aud_schl_effects)

2. 9 Mitigation of PTSD

According to digest (2001), to mitigate PTSD ahead of time, children need to be taugh about trauma, learning about people who have experienced trauma and gone on to live healthy lives gives children role models and hope for their own future.

During a traumatic experience, children will survive better if they have a structure to follow and
can maintain some sense of control. Learning the survival skills will aid in maintaining the
control. Children need accurate and specific information about their immediate safety about what

has happened and about what will happen to them next (James, 1998 cited by Digest). Knowledge helps them control their thoughts and feelings.

Following a traumata, debriefing is critical. Children will vary concerning their willingness to talk about their experiences. Some will play out the event, while others may be more comfortable writing or drawing about the event. What is important is the opportunity to communicate. There are different avenues for the child to communicate, including online discussion forums for children (Sleek, 1998 cited by Digest). But this last may of communication is not yet developed in our country.

A child's initial debriefing should be child-centered and nonjudgmental. The adult should recognize that each child did his/her best, no matter what the outcome, and refrain from offering advice. Adults should recognize that no two children will have the same thoughts, feelings, or opinions. All expressions about the trauma are acceptable.

Following a trauma, it is also important to help a child reestablish control. Reviewing survival skills and drills and planning for next time reestablishes strength. Allowing a child to make choices reestablishes their governance over their own lives.

2. 10 Helping the child with PTSD

According to Digest (2001), making the diagnosis of PTSD requires evaluation by a trained mental health professional. However, regular classroom teachers have a major role in the identification and referral process. Children often express themselves through play. Because the teacher sees the child for many hours of the day including play time, the teacher may be the first to suspect all is not well. However, the traumatic events can involve secrets. Sexual abuse for example may take place privately. Sensitive teachers should monitor all children for changes in behavior that may signal a traumatic experience or a flashback to a prior traumatic experience.

Teachers can help a child suspected of post traumatic Stress Disorder by:

- Gently discouraging reliance or avoidance; letting the child know it is all right to discuss the incident

- Talking understandingly with the child about their feelings

- Understanding that children react differently according to age-young children tend to cling, adolescents withdraw

- Encouraging a return to normal activities helping of control of his/her life and - Seeking professional help.

Professional assistance is most important since PTSD can have a lifelong impact on child. Symptoms can lie dormant for decades and resurface many years later during exposure to a similar circumstance. It is only by recognition and treatment of PTSD that trauma victims can hope to move past the impact of the trauma and lead healthy. Thus, referral to trained mental health professionals is critical. The school psychologist is a vital resource, and guidance counselors can be an important link in the mental health resource chain.

Although professional assistance is ultimately essential in case of PTSD, classroom teachers must deals with the immediate daily impact. Becoming an informed teacher is the first step in helping traumatized children avoids the lifelong consequences of PTDS.

CHAPITRE 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with methods and procedures that were used in collecting and analyzing data; the aim of this research was to examine the effect of trauma on learning in secondary school. This research was carried out in Kabuga High School in Kigali City.

3. 1 Research design

According to Williams (1982), cited by Ndokoye, (2007), a research is a plan which determines clearly how data relating to a given problem should be collected and analyzed. It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of any topic; the researcher must identify the problem and know to find out solution to that problem for the benefit of the population concerned by the research.

He goes on saying that the researcher follows the following steps: conceptualization a topic and deciding on its specified objectives, the researcher put himself in a position to consider the depending on what is useful to know, finally the researcher put all together and procedures the final report.

3. 2 Research instrument

3. 2. 1 Questionnaire

In the present study, the questionnaire was used to collect data. It involved structured, unstructured and semi-structured questions. The questionnaire was formulated on the basis of the topic, objectives of the study and research questions

3. 2. 2 Documentation

Kakooza, (1992) asserts that documentation refers to the data collection process which is based on reading books and other documents from the library. This technique is generally considered to be very important to any one who is conduction a scientific research. In this regard, sources such as books, dissertations, reports and electronic sources were consulted.

3. 3 Area of the study

This research was conducted at Kabuga High School located in Kigali city, Gasabo District. Kabuga High School was chosen because it is one of the schools that experience a serious problem of trauma among students.

3. 4 Population

The study involved teachers and student of A level. Students in upper secondary school level, were chosen because they are they are the ones who usually experience trauma problem due to the fact that they witnessed massacring of their relatives during the 1994 genocide and war. (table one shows the detail)

3. 5 Sample size and sampling techniques

According to Kakinda (2000), cited by Ndokoye, P. (2007), the sample size is the portion of population which represents the total population under study and if the sample is properly selected, the information collected can be used to make statements on the whole population. The sample size was 86, 77 students and 9 teachers who were all selected using simple random sampling technique. 10% of the students in each class (S4, S5, and S6) were chosen. Likewise, 20% of the teachers in the school was chosen and the tables 1 and 2 below give the details of how the sample size was selected.

Table 1: Sample of the students

Class	Option	Number of students	Sample of 10%	Approximate sample
S4	COGE Anglo	48	4.8	5
	COGE Franco A	68	6.8	7
	COGE Franco B	65	6.5	7
	SH Anglo	43	4.3	4
	SH Franco	80	8.0	8
S5	COGE Anglo	28	2.8	3
	COGE Franco	24	2.4	2
	SH Anglo	27	2.7	3
	SH Franco	29	2.9	3
S6	COGE Anglo	52	5.2	5
	COGE Franc A	67	6.7	8
	COGE Franco B	67	6.7	7
	SH Anglo	62	6.2	7
	SH Franco	78	7.8	8
Total		738		77

Table 2: Sample of the teachers and other school staff

Number of teachers and other school staff	Sample of 20%	Approximate number
46	9,2	9

3. 6 Validity and reliability of instrument

According to Yin quoted by Suubi S.P. (2003), validity and reliability are important measures in judging the quality of any research including our study.

The validity and reliability of the questionnaire was asserted when the researcher chosen a small group of students, who were given the questionnaires to fill in before giving to the real study sample size. This was done to find out errors in the questionnaires and questions that were not clear hence ascertaining the validity and reliability of the instrument.

3. 7 Data processing

According to Ndokoye, P. (2007), data processing deals with organization of collected data into meaningful and understandable way. It involves coding, editing, tabulation and then analysis of collected data. Therefore the researcher followed the following steps.

3. 7. 1 Editing

The researcher recognized and eliminated some errors that were made during the completion of questionnaire that was dealt with completeness, accuracy and consistency that was shown in responding questions in questionnaires.

3. 7. 2 Tabulation

It was done by summarizing the responses, putting them in statistical tables and grouping them into their appropriate percentages matching with the number of their occurrences (responses). This helped the researcher to compare and to analyze the responses for each question.

3. 7. 3 Data analysis

The information collected was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively with accordance to research objectives and hypotheses.

CHAPITRE 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

This chapter presents analysis and interpretation of data collected by the researcher was to evaluate the effect of trauma on secondary school student' learning in post genocide period,

4. 1 Students' views about the effect of trauma on learning

4. 1. 1 Identification of students

Identification of the respondents was one of the aspects considered in the present study. Such aspects as age, sex and whether the respondent is a daily or boarding student were considered and the table below shows the details.

Table 3: Identification of the students

	Frequency	Percentage
Age
Under 15	6	9
Between 16 and 18	17	22
Between 19 and 21	26	34
Between 22 and 24	23	30
25 and above	5	6
Day or boarding students
Boarding students	68	88
Day students	9	12
Sex
Male	43	44
Female	34	56

As shown in table 3 above, 86% of the respondents were aged between 16 and 24 while 9% were under 15 years of age. 6% were aged 25 and above. This means that most of the respondents witnessed the 1994 genocide and therefore it is likely that they experience Post genocide trauma. Furthermore, a big number of the respondents (88%) are boarding students.

As far as age is concerned, it was found that more than half of the respondents were female students and 44% of respondents were male. The number of female respondents is more than that on male students due to the fact that there are more girls in the classes from which the sample was chosen.

4. 1. 2 Views of students about trauma and its effect on learning

In order to find out whether students had some knowledge about trauma, a question «What do know any thing about trauma» was asked and all of the respondents answered in the affirmative. This implies that the respondents were knowledgeable about trauma probably because of the trauma cases that usually occurs at the school ever year.

4. 1. 3 Occurrence of trauma at school and the most affected

Respondents were asked the frequency of trauma cases in the school and table below provides their Reponses.

Table 4: The students' view about occurrence of trauma at their school

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Sometimes	7	9		b) Very often
60	78

Source: Primary data

From the table above, it can be seen that cases of trauma in Kabuga High School are common as revered by 78% of the respondents. The implication is that frequent cases of trauma affect students' learning as they hardly concentrate on studies and this may consequently result in poor academic performance. As put by Digest (2002), trauma is detrimental to students' learning. A traumatized student may not be able to attend classes, tests, and may manifest such behaviors as spacing about, and having what may be interpreted as inappropriate or extreme reaction to class discussions or activities may actually be responses to trauma. It is true that learning may be impeded by fear, anxiety, poor concentration, and the enormous energy involved in hiding abuse effects on learning are shaped by education discourses.

Table 5: Students most affected by trauma

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Girls	67	87		b) Boys
10	13

Source: Primary data

As evidenced, from the table above, the findings showed that girls (87%) are the ones who mostly experience trauma. This seems to suggest that girls are emotionally weak in terms of recalling tragic events.

Table 6: The time students with trauma take before attending normal classes

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) One day	8	10		b) Less than 1 week
23	30	c) 1 week
16	21	d) 1 - 3 weeks
26	34	e) More than 3 weeks
4	5

Source: Primary data

As indicated in the table above, 30% of the respondents pointed out that trauma manifestation among some students last for less than 1 week while 21% said to some students it takes one week. 34% said that some students take 1-3 weeks, 10% mentioned one day and 5% said that trauma takes more than 3 weeks for some learners. Based on the above statistics, it can be asserted that the period for trauma manifestation varies from one individual to another.

4. 1. 4 The effect of trauma on other students

Students were asked whether trauma has an effect on other students who are not traumatized and table below indicates their responses.

Table 7: The effect of trauma on other students

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Yes	64	86		b) No
11	14

Most of students agreed that a traumatized student affect others and they said that the reasons may be due to the fact that trauma is caused by many factors, and is a result of any experience that makes them feel terrified, helplessness, lonely.

Table 8: Students' views about whether trauma interrupts the teaching-learning process in their classrooms

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Strongly agree	8	10		b) Agree
11	14	c) Uncertain
25	33	d) Disagree
23	30	e) Strongly disagree
10	13

Source: Primary data

As indicated in the table, when asked weather trauma interrupts the teaching-learning process in their classrooms, 10% of students strongly agreed that trauma crisis interrupts their learning; 14% agreed, 33% were uncertain, 20 disagreed and 13% strongly disagreed.. In addition, some students said that when the trauma crisis takes place and courses are interrupted, the teachers and counselor take care of the traumatized students and advise other students to help them and to report cases that occur.

Also, students were asked to say how does trauma affect students' learning in general in their school and most of them responded that trauma cause the interruption of courses at their school in general for traumatized students, it is very difficult for them to follow the courses because of a big number of absenteeism in classes during courses time for traumatized student and for their fellows who take care for them during that period either in the dormitory or at the health center, and this may reduce the student's performance in their exams at school level or at national level during national examination.

4. 2 Teachers' perception on trauma

4. 2. 1 Teachers' views about training in trauma counseling

Teachers were asked a number of questions about trauma counseling and the following table shows their responses.

Table 9: Teachers' responses about trauma counseling

Question	Yes		No
	Frequency	percentage	Frequency	Percentage
Q1 Are you trained in guidance and counselling?	4	44	5	56
Q2 Have you ever had any training in trauma counselling?	2	22	7	78
Q6 Does trauma among some students affects others who are not traumatized?	9	100	0	0
Q9 (a) Do some teachers get traumatized?	1	11	8	93

Source: primary data

This table shows the teachers' views about trauma. The findings show that most of the teacher (56%) are not trained in guidance and counseling and only 44% are trained in guidance and counseling and among them, only 2 teachers (22%) are trained in trauma counseling This implies that few teachers are trained in trauma counseling and this leads to poor mitigation and handling traumatic events that occur in the school

Table 10: Teachers' views about the occurrence of trauma in their school

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Never	0	0		b) Sometimes
1	11	c) Often
8	89

Source: Primary data

The table below shows that all the teachers agreed that it occurs many times cases of trauma at KHS, no teacher said that it doesn't occur and only 11% said that it sometimes occurs cases of trauma at their school and 89 said that it often occurs cases of trauma in their school. .

4. 2. 2 Teachers' views about who help traumatized students

Teachers were asked their views about who help traumatized students and their responses are summarized in the table below

Table 11: Teachers' views about who help traumatized students

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) None	0	0		b) Fellow students
4	45	c) Teachers
3	33	d) Staff in charge of guidance and counselling
2	22	e) Others
0	0

Source: Primary data

The table below shows that all teachers agree that students in crisis are helped because none of them said t hat they are not helped; many of them (45%) said that they are helped by their fellow students, other by teachers and the staff in charge of guidance and counseling and others said that they are helped by matron, patron and the masters on duties; and they continued saying that they are firstly helped by their fellow students who call the teacher or the counselor when it is necessary.

This indicate that traumatized students are helped by all individuals within the school and that it may affect the scholar activities

4. 2. 3 Teachers' views about the time students with trauma take before attending normal classes

Teachers were asked their views about the time that students with trauma take before attending normal classes in order to seen how trauma affect daily class attendances and other academic activities. The table above shows the details

Table 12: Teachers' views about the time students with trauma take before attending normal classes

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) One day	0	0		b) Less than 1 week
3	33	c) 1 -2 week
3	33	d) 2 - 3 weeks
2	22	e) More than 3 weeks
1	11

Source: Primary data

The teachers said that the time students with trauma take before attending normal classes varies from one student to other, this times varies, from less than a week to more than 3 weeks. Many of them 66% said that it this time varies from some days do 3 weeks, 22% said 2 to 3 week. This indicates that trauma affect teaching-learning process on the side of the students who have to attend the class and on the hand of the teachers who have to manage all the students.

4. 2. 4 Teachers' view about the effect of trauma on other students

Teachers were asked whether trauma has an effect on other students who are not traumatized and table below indicates their responses.

Table 13: Teachers' view about how traumatized students affect others

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Yes	9	100		b) No
0	0

Source: Primary data

The table above shows that all teachers (100%) agree that traumatized students affect others who
are not traumatized. This may be caused by the variety of individual responses to trauma which

is related to many factors, including a student's prior history of trauma or loss, prior or current mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, or behavior problems, and individual differences in temperament.

4. 2. 5 The teachers' view about trauma crisis and interruption of courses

The teachers were asked if sometimes courses are interrupted by trauma crisis; their responses are summarized in the table below.

Table 14: The teachers' view about trauma crisis and interruption of courses

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Strongly agree	1	11		b) Agree
4	44	c) Uncertain
1	11	d) Disagree
3	22	e) Strongly disagree
0	0

Most of the teachers responded that trauma crisis interrupt the teaching-learning process. 55% agreed this statement, 22% were uncertain at this statement, 11% disagreed this statement and no one strongly disagreed that it interrupts the courses. They continued saying that this does not take more than two days the time that courses are interrupted due to trauma crisis.

Teachers were also asked what the school does during the period that trauma interrupted courses and they answered that the school helps those students and organize a sensitization of students and all school staff about their daylily life in general and especially about the trauma mitigation. Teachers were also asked what they do in that period and they said that they become closer to students in order to help them and to explain them that it is normal that an individual can be traumatized cause of so many factors such as the background of an individual.

4. 2. 6 Trauma among teachers

Teachers were asked whether they are usually some of them who get traumatized especially during the mourning period and the table below shows their responses

Table 15: Trauma among teacher

Responses	Frequency	Percentage
a) Yes	1	11		b) No
8	89

Most of teachers disagreed that they become also traumatized (89%) only one teacher (11%) said that they become traumatized. They were also asked what does the school do when a teacher become traumatized one teacher (11%) said that he is allowed to a break of about a week, other staff visit him/her and he/she return at school after the crisis.

Teachers were also asked how trauma affects the teaching-learning process and they said that it affects this very negatively because if one student is traumatized, it is very difficult to continue teaching, this leads to not completion of the curriculum and this makes student perform poorly in examination at school level and at national examination. This indicate that as trauma affect the teaching-learning process at all level on the side of teachers and students because this decrease absenteeism of students and/or teachers which leads to non-completion of the academic program.

Teachers were also asked the challenges they face while teaching classes with traumatized students and almost of them answered that it is difficult to handle them because sometimes they are considered as indiscipline cases and also when it occur on a student who is known to have bad behavior. Recognition of each student's background is also impossible because teachers locate far from the school and gone at school only the time of teaching which makes them not to be aware of students' particularities such as those of trauma.

Conclusion

This chapter four is about the presentation of the results obtained from the research on the effect of trauma on learning in post genocide period. It also included the discussions of the findings. The responses from teachers, and pupils indicated that trauma delays the teaching-learning process at Kabuga Secondary School because for example many students are sometimes traumatized at one time and the courses are interrupted, the traumatized students are helped by their fellow students with leads to the absenteeism of both traumatized and non-traumatized students in class leading to non-completion of the program on the side of the teacher and other times the school organize sensitization on trauma counseling in order to mitigate it and all its consequences during courses times and additional, very few teachers are trained in trauma counseling and the teachers live far from the school which make very difficult to follow properly their students.

CHAPITRE 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5. 1 Summary

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of trauma on secondary school students' learning, focusing on its effect on students and teachers and their views about the effect of trauma on teaching-learning process and academic performance in examinations at school or at National level. The objectives of the study were:

· To examine the effect of trauma on student' learning and academic achievement.

· To find out how the problem of trauma among students is addressed in schools.

· To suggest ways of how the problem of trauma in schools could be handled.

Most of the students indicated that they are aware of trauma and said that it occurs cases of trauma at their school. The most affected by trauma problems were girls due to their emotions as said students. Trauma can take the between one day and more than a month and traumatized students are helped; they affect others who are not traumatized as 88% of students reported.

Many students are sometimes affected by trauma and courses are interrupted but unfortunately there is no specialized room where traumatized students are helped; they are helped in their dormitories or carried at health centers. Students said that trauma affect their learning and school because it cause them absenteeism in classes in classes for traumatized students and their fellows who help them during trauma crisis and it morally discourages the students and affect their performance because it is difficult for them to study all the program of academic year cause of many interruptions caused by trauma and other related problems.

On the other hand, even if 44% of teachers were trained in guidance and counseling at Kabuga High School only 11% were trained in trauma counseling and a big number of traumatized students were mostly helped by their fellow students who have no training on trauma counseling and sometimes by trained teachers or school counselor. The teachers said that trauma crisis duration varies between one day and more than a month. They 100% agree that traumatized students affect other students but they said that teachers are not traumatized and that trauma is

the main challenge that face their teaching because it is difficulty to know the particularity of all students.

Both teachers and students finished saying the trauma affect their entire academic program and leading to poor academic performance.

5. 2 Conclusion

The present study dealt with the effect of trauma on secondary school students' learning in post genocide, it aimed at examining the effect of trauma on students' learning in secondary school, it was limited to Kigali city Province and in particular a case of Kabuga High School.

The results show that secondary school teachers are aware of guidance and counseling in general and specifically not aware of trauma counseling. The students who sometimes experience trauma crisis were helped by their teachers and their fellow students and they were helped to mitigate trauma and its related problems.

Students also were aware about trauma and the most to help their fellows students when they fall in trauma crisis but the teachers also help them. Only the problem is that there is no strong relationship between teachers and students because they are almost in contact only during the course time and they live far from the school which prevent them from knowing students' difference and to help them accordingly.

5. 3 Recommendation

In the present study, the following recommendations were suggested:

- The government through the Ministry in charge of Education and the Ministry in charge of Health has to organize how to provide continuous training on trauma counseling to all domains such as school administration and local administration.

- To provide facilities such as modules, films, poems available to everybody so that they become aware of trauma and handling traumatic events. and io increase the number of trauma centers all over country

- The school staff should be able to understand students' difference and problems, and analyze critically and should be trained to manage students and to handle all their situations.

- There should be guidance and counseling services available in each secondary school in general and particularly trauma counseling

- The school staff should provide special rooms where traumatized students should be helped

- A teacher should be able to create a conducive atmosphere so that students feel free and be able to express the feelings.

- To create a strong collaboration between all school stakeholders so that they manage and solve all their problems together.

5. 4 Suggestion for further research

This study was limited to trauma and its effect on learning in post genocide secondary schools, As this research work was not exhaustive, further researchers need to be carried out either to complement or contradict this one. The researcher suggests that t hey can be conducted on the following:

- The effect of trauma on learning in primary school

- The effect of trauma on learning in Higher Learning Institutions

REFERENCES

General books

- Asha, B. and Nirnala, G. (2000), Guidance and Counseling Vol I: Theoretical perspective. New Delhi: Modern Printers

- Cross R. (2005), Psychology, the Science of Mind and Behavior 5^th ed: Green Gate Publishing Service, Cambridge Kent, London.

- Kakooza, T. (1992). An Introduction to Research Methodology Kampala: Makerere University.

- Kochar, S.K. (1994), Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities: New Delhi: Green Park Extension.

- Kochar, S.K. (2000), Educational and vocational Guidance in Secondary School: Revised and Enlarged edition: New Delhi, Sterting Publishers

- Lendhard, N. (1987), Guidance and Counseling in Classroom. Cape Town: Miller Longman Publisher.

- Njoroge, G. and Rubagiza, J. (2003). History of Education Kigali: KIE

- Sifuna D. N and Otiende J. E (1994). An Introductory History of Education, Nairobi university press.

Dictionaries

- Macmillan English Dictionary for advanced learners, International Edition (2007) Malaysia

Reports

- MINEDUC, (2003), National Guidance and Counseling Strategies for Rwandan School: Kigali Rwanda

- UNESCO, (2000), Regional training seminar on Guidance and Counseling development in Botswana.

- (UNESCO: 2003) Regional training seminar on Guidance and Counseling development in Malawi

Memoirs and Unpublished resources

- Karangwa, E. (2003), EDS121 Introduction to Special Needs Education, Kigali: KIE, Unpublished.

- Karangwa, E. and Suubi, S. P. (2007) EDP 406: Guidance and Counseling Kigali KIE Unpublished

- Ndokoye, P. (2007), The Attitude of Secondary School Teachers Towards Guidance and Counseling: a case study of three Secondary School in Kigali City: KIE, Unpublished.

- SCPS (2006) National centre for psychosocial consultation services evaluation report, Kigali, Unpublished

Electronic sources

- www.Ericdigest.org/2002-3/post.htm retrieved on 21st May 2008

- Richard, http://www.realmentalhealth.com/dissociative_disorders/psychological_trauma_01 2.asp retrieved on 15th March 2008

- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_trauma retrieved on 18th February 2008

- http://www.helpguide.org/mental/emotional psychological trauma.htm retrieved on 21st May 2008

- Steele, (2007) Trauma's Impact on Learning and Behavior: A case for Interventions in Schools. Trauma and Loss Research and Intervention journal, Vol. 2, Number 2 [ http://www.nctnet.org/nccts.nav.do?pid=ctv_aud] Retrieved on 21^st March 2008

- Randy Boddam http://www.soulselfhelp.on.ca/ptsdtorstar.html Retrieved on 15^th March 2008 - www.Helpguide.org retrieved on 15^th March 2008

- www.calpro-online.com/Eric/textonly/doegen.asp?tbl=digest&ID=124 retrieved on 21^st may 2008

Cole, F.S etal, (2005) Helping Traumatized Children Learn: A report and Policy agenda. [ http://www.massadvaocates.org] Retrieved on 15^th March 2008

APPENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

Kigali Institute of Education P.O Box 5039

Kigali- Rwanda

5th June 2008

Dear student,

I am an undergraduate at Kigali institute of Education in the Faculty of Sciences carrying out a research on «The Effect of Trauma on Students' Learning in Post Genocide Secondary schools. A case study of Kabuga High School». I kindly request you to answer this questionnaire and ensure that the information that you will give will be used purposefully for this research only and will be kept confidential.

Thanks very much /

Nshuti,

Ndi umunyeshuli urangiza mu Ishuli Rikuru Nderabarezi rya Kigali (KIE) mu ishami ry'Ubumenyi nkaba ndimo gukora ubushakashatsi ku ngaruka z'Ihahamuka ku myigire y'abanyeshuli mu mashuli yisumbuye mu gihe cya nyuma ya Genocide; urugero fatizo muri Kabuga High School.

Ndabasaba ko mwamfasha mukansubiriza ibi bibazo mbizeza ko ibisubizo byanyu bizakoreshwa gusa muri ubu bushakashatsi gusa kandi bikazabikwa nk'ibanga.

Murakoze cyane.

HABYARIMANA Kalisa Maurice

I) INSTRUCTIONS / AMABWIRIZA

1) Choose the right answer by ticking in appropriate case / Shyira akamenyeso mu kazu kajyanye n'igisubizo nyacyo

2) Fill in the place provided / uzuza ahari umwanya wabugenewe

3) Answer in a language you wish / Subiza mu rurimi wifuza

II) IDENTIFICATION / IBIKURANGA

1) Class / Ishuli

2) Age / Imyaka ufite:

a) Before 15 / Munsi ya 15 n

b) Between 16 and 18 / Hagati ya 16 na 18 n

c) Between 19 and 21 / Hagati ya 19 na 21 n

d) Between 22 and 24/ Hagati ya 22 na 24 n

e) Over 25 /Hejuru ya 25 n

3) Studying status / uko wiga:

a) Daily students / Utaha mu rugo n

b) Boarding student / Uba mu kogo n

4) Sex / Igitsina

a) Male / Gabo n

b) Female / Gore n

III) QUESTIONS / IBIBAZO

1) Do you know any thing about trauma / Hari ikintu waba uzi ku ihahamuka?

a) Yes / Yego n

b) No / Oya n
If yes, what does it mean to you? / Niba ari Yego, vumva byaba bisobanura iki?

2) How often do trauma cases occur in your school? / Haba hajya haba ibibazo by'ihahamuka mu kigo cyanyu?

a) Never / Habe na mba n

b) Sometimes / Rimwe na rimwe n

c) Often / Kenshi n

d) Very often / Kenshi cyane n

3) When it occurs, who are the most affected? / Iyo bibayeho, ni bande bibaho kurusha abandi?

a) Girls / Abakobwa n

b) Boys / Abahungu n

4) For traumatized students, how much time does the crisis take? / Kubo byabayeho, byaba bimara igihe kingana iki?

a) One day / Umunsi umwe n

b) Between 2 days and 5 days / Hagati y'iminsi 2 n'iminsi 3 n

c) Between 1 to 2 weeks / Hagati y'icyumweru1 n'ibyumweru 2 n

d) Between 3 to 4 weeks / Hagati y'ibyumwerui 3 na 4 n

e) More than a month / Hejuru y'ukwezi n

5) Does trauma among some students affect others who are not traumatized? / Iyo abanyeshuri bahahamutse byaba bituma n'abandi bahahamuka?

a) Yes / Yego n

b) No /Oya n

(1) If yes, how? / Niba ari yego, ni gute? .......................................

...................................................................................................

6) In my school, many students are affected by the trauma crisis and it interrupts the teaching-learning process / Mu kigo cyacu, abanyeshuri benshi bajya bahahamuka ku buryo amasomo ahagarara

a) Strongly agree / Ndabyemera cyane n

b) Agree / Ndabyemera n

c) Uncertain / Simbizi n

d) Disagree / Simbyemera n

e) Strongly disagree / Simbyemera na gaton

7) In case of trauma crisis, what does the school do in that period? / Mu gihe habaye ihahamuka, ubuyobozi bw'ikigo bukora iki muri icyo gihe?

8) Student with trauma are helped by: / Abanyeshuli bahahamutse bitabwaho na:

a) None / Nta n'umwe n

b) Fellow students / Abanuyeshuri bagenzi babo n

c) Counselor / Umujyanama w'ihungabana n'ibindi bibazo n

d) Staff (precisely who?) / Abalimu ( bavuge)

9) Is there a specific room or place where traumatized students are helped from? / Hari ahantu hihariye abanyeshuri bahahamute ikigo kibafashiriza?

a) Yes / Yego n

b) No / Oya n
If yes, where is it located? / Niba ari yego, ni hehe?

10) In general how does trauma affect students' learning in your school? / Muri rusange, ni gute ihahamuka rihungabanya imyigire y'abanyeshuri mu kigo cyanyu?

SCHOOL STAFF QUESTIONNAIRE

Kigali Institute of Education

P.O Box 5039 Kigali- Rwanda 5th June 2008

Dear teacher,

I am an undergraduate at Kigali institute of Education in the Faculty of Sciences carrying out a research on «The Effect of Trauma on Students' Learning in Post Genocide Secondary schools A case study of Kabuga High School». I kindly request you to answer this questionnaire and ensure that the information that you will give will be purposely for this research only and will be kept confidential

Your cooperation is highly appreciated

Thanks very much

HABYARIMANA Kalisa Maurice

I) INSTRUCTION

1) Choose the right answer by ticking in appropriate case

2) Fill in the place provided

3) You can tick in more than one case

II) QUESTIONS

1) Are you trained in Guidance and counseling?

a) Yes n

b) No n

2) Have you ever has any training in trauma counseling?

a) Yes n

b) No n

3) Do cases of trauma occur in your school?

a) Never n

b) Sometimes n

c) Often n

d) Very often n

4) When it occurs, who take care of traumatized students?

a) None n

b) Fellow students n

c) Teachers n

d) Staff in charge of guidance and counseling n

e) Other (precise)

5) For traumatized students, how much time does the crisis take?

a) One day n

b) Between 2 days and 5 days n

c) Between 1 to 2 weeks n

d) Between 3 to 4 weeks n

e) More than a month n

6) Does trauma among some students affect others who are not traumatized?

a) Yes / Yego n

b) No /Oya n

(1) If yes, how? ...........................................................................

...............................................................................................................

....................................................................................

11) In my school, many students are affected by the trauma crisis and it interrupts the teaching-learning process

a) Strongly agree n

b) Agree n

c) Uncertain n

d) Disagree n

e) Strongly disagree n

How much time does it take?

7) In case of trauma crisis, what does the school do in that period?

8) If yes, what do you do as teacher?

9) Do teachers also sometimes become traumatized in your school?

a) Yes n

b) No n
(1) If yes, does the school help them?

(a) Yes n

(b) No n

If yes, how ?

10) How does trauma affect the teaching-learning process?

11) What challenges do you face while teaching a class with some traumatized learners?