Memoire Online - Impact of one cup of milk per child program on school dropout in Huye district

IMPACT OF ONE CUP OF MILK PER CHILD PROGRAM ON SCHOOL DROPOUT IN HUYE DISTRICT

Dissertation submitted to the College of Business and Economics In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of bachelor's Degree in Applied statistics.

DECLARATION

I, FABRICE Birasa, a student at University of Rwanda, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS, School of Economics, Department of applied statistics hereby declare that the presented dissertation: «The Impact of one cup of milk per child program on school dropout level». A case study of Huye district primary schools» is my own presentation which has not been presented for any other academic purpose at any University or higher learning institution.

CERTIFICATION

I certify that this research on «The Impact of one cup of milk per child on children dropout; A case study of Huye district primary schools» presented by FABRICE Birasa. The research was done towards partial fulfillment of Bachelor's Degree submitted to College of Business and Economics, School of Economics, department of applied statistics is based on the original research and the study under the supervision of Dr DIEUDONNE Muhoza

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The following work is not only an individual work .I could never have accomplished it without help, support, guidance and efforts of a lot of people to whom I owe my thanks. I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank all individuals who helped me during my education career, financial support, encouragement, moral support, all my family, friends all kinds of your advice, moral, love have contributed towards the successful accomplishment of this work.

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude and heart-felt appreciation firstly, to my Almighty God in Christ Jesus name, to whom I owe my life, wisdom, and good faith in my whole life. I praise him for enabling me throughout my academic journey and carry out this academic research in particular.

Special thanks go to Dr DIEUDONNE Muhoza my Supervisor, whose guidance, encouragement and correction for this study has inconsiderably contributed towards its achievement.

I would like also to acknowledge my beloved sister and brothers: BIRASA (Claire, Germain, Benoit, Tresor, Eric, Bruno and last born of my family Genau); your support towards my academic performance is immeasurable.

Institutionally, I would also like to thank the Government of Rwanda for its scholarship granted to me to the extent that I am completing my bachelor degree courses. I am grateful for the opportunity to study in the University of Rwanda.

My gratitude also goes to all classmates with whom we shared academic ideas for whole these four years of undergraduate.

Acknowledgement again is attributed to UR-Christian communities' members, specifically CEP-UR HUYE CAMPUS, ELAYO CHOIR, SGM, etc.

Finally, thanks goes to my relatives whose names did not appear above and friends in one way or another towards the successful completion of this work.

LIST OF ACRONYMS ND ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABSTRACT

To study the Impact of one cup of milk per child on children dropout, the following objectives were set: To identify the causes associated with children drop out of primary schools in Huye district. To examine the relationship between one cup per child and dropout in Huye district, to find out the challenges associated with children dropout in Huye district, to find out strategies to be taken in order to solve challenges of Children dropout in primary school in Huye district. Questionnaire, interview and observation were used to collect data from survey of population consist of 98 primary schools out of which 4 primary schools were selected namely Butare Catholic primary school, Cyarwa primary school, Rango primary school, and CJM whereby a sample of 60 respondents were selected by using purposive sampling technique as well as simple random sampling, the researcher used secondary.

All The data were analyzed by using SPSS 16 (as a statistical package for analysis) and interpreted by using tables, figures and charts as well as excel was used during the graphical presentation of results. The findings revealed that the one cup of milk per child contributed towards the reduction of dropout within primary schools.

After analyzing and interpreting the data, recommendation and suggestions on what measures are to be taken by policy makers, specifically leaders in charge of education system as well as researchers were highlighted for the reduction of dropout.

CHAPTER I : GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Education is as important and very essential to man as life itself on this world, in fact it is a very important means of developing any nation (Haki Elimu, 2009).

«It is through education that the daughter of a peasant can become a doctor; that a son of a mineworker can become the head of the mine; that a child of farm workers can become the president of a great nation» (Nelson Mandela)

The term education has not lent itself to any strict consensual definition as it depends on the perspective from which one views it, it can be considered as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, factors, interest, abilities, competence and the cultural norms of a society by people to transmit this life to the coming generations so as to enhance perpetual development of the society (Okoro, 1998)

In spite of the importance attached to education both nationally and internationally, Education sector in the world still is facing a lot of problems that varies from one country to another such as poor Academic performance, School dropout, Truancy, Poor environment of learning and other social and economic problems relating to education (Rumberger, 2001).

School dropout in its simplest meaning is the untimely withdrawal from school, these students who withdraw from school prematurely end up not obtaining any certificate of graduation (Wotherspoon2004; Bridge land et al., 2006; Oghuvbu, 2008).

The prevalence of drop out varies between and within countries and occurs more frequently in certain age ranges and grades (depending on the educational structure and patterns of participation in that country).

The student's decision to drop out of schools has a long term consequences that can contribute to juvenile delinquency, welfare dependency or in the worst cases. There is general consensus that the school dropout problem has reached epidemic proportions internationally and has become a global problem confronting the education industry around the world (Patrick 2008; Wotherspoon2004; Bridge land et al., 2006; Oghuvbu, 2008).

In African countries, dropout is a significant problem and is associated with socio-economic and socio-cultural background and geographical factors, Studies in Nigeria reveal that financial constraints are among other things the main reasons for school dropout (Okoje, et al-1996) as fathers and mothers are mainly responsible for costs of children's education.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Education plays a vital role in human resources development. Schooling, according to the human capital theory, is an investment that generates higher future income for individuals. It elevates the productivity and competence of individuals and thus produces skilled manpower that is capable of leading the economy towards the path of sustainable economic development.

Strengthening the quality of education has become a global agenda at all educational levels and more so at the primary level. Quality primary education also ensures increased access and equality and it is mainly due to these reasons that various international Forums and Declarations have pledged improvements in quality of primary education. It was stated in a report of Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 1991) that dropout phenomenon is a world-wide problem associated with the process of development in any society whether such society is a developing or developed nations. For instance, in the United States, a federal study group known as the National Commission on Excellence in Education observed critically that high school dropout rate rose to almost 30% by the late 1980s. In the light of the Annual Education for All Global Monitoring Report, published by UNESCO, it has been revealed that Nigeria, Pakistan, India, and Ethiopia, account for 23 million out of the world`s 77 million out off-school children. There are many differences between the education systems of developed and developing countries.

According to the World Food Programme, 66 million primary school children go hungry every day, with 23 million hungry children in Africa alone. Furthermore, 80 per cent of these 66 million children are concentrated within just 20 countries. Additionally, 75 million school-age children (55 per cent of them girls) do not attend school, with 47 per cent of them living in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, the need to reduce hunger while increasing school enrollment in these children is evident, and school feeding programmes have been developed to target this multi-faceted problem.

Although Rwanda has sustained a strong political commitment to improve education access and quality, placing the country on a planned trajectory towards achieving quality basic education for all, the country is far from reaching the goal of universal primary education, with only half the children completing primary school. (EFA country profile 2012)

Drop out is an under-researched area, even though the problem is prevalent. With EFA and MDGs targeting access to education, knowledge around dropouts and studies such as this, can help illuminate some of the complexities around dropping out and bring new insights to policy makers and educational practitioners. By understanding dropout further there will be greater potential to move towards a more meaningful notion of access. (Frances Hunt, May 2008)

The government of Rwanda has started, around 2010, the program entitled one cup of milk per child dedicated to decrease malnutrition, as well as dropout, among children in Rwandan primary schools.

The «One Cup of Milk Per Child programme has been introduced in around 100 schools in Rwanda and is being expanded in collaboration with MINAGRI.

This study is important because it brings together a range of literature on dropout causes and its effects in a way that has not happened before and discusses the possible influence that one cup of milk per child can bring on children dropout.

1.3 Research Objective

1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of this study will be to examine the Impact of one cup of milk per child on children dropout in Huye district.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

2. To examine the relationship between one cup of milk per child and school dropout level in primary schools of Huye district.

3. To find out the consequences associated with school dropout in Huye district.

1.4 Research Question

2. Is there any relationship between one cup of milk per child and dropout in Huye district?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H₀: There is no relationship between one cup of milk per child and school dropout

H₁: There is a relationship between one cup of milk per child and school dropout

1. Children that are likely to dropout are those without access to one cup of milk per child program.

3. The increase in milk supplied is associated with the decline in numbers of children who dropout.

1.6 Significance of the study

The study will help the government to grasp the overall performance of one cup of milk per child program in the selected schools as a way of reducing children dropout level in general. The study will also identify challenges that face the program and will attempt to suggest adequate solutions. Besides family poverty, the study will shade light on other contributing factors to dropout, especially in Rwandan community. The findings of this study may serve for further researchers in the aim of improving the program of one cup of milk per child.

1.7 Scope of the study

This study will be carried out in selected primary schools of Huye district with or without the program of one cup of milk per child.

1.8 Organization of the study

The first chapter was the general introduction: it gives background of the study, the statement of the problem, objective of the study, hypothesis testing, the scope and significance of the study

Second was the literature review, major concepts of the study and other related work.

The third chapter is the methodology; it presents methods and techniques employed in data Collection, the sample size and how it is selected.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

This chapter presents a review of literature on the factors that define student's dropouts in global level, regional level and Rwandan local level, especially Huye district. The chapter consists of the theoretical framework and summary of reviewed literature identification of research gaps and conceptual framework.

2.1.1 Definition of key terms

According to Cambridge dictionary, a student is defined as a person who is learning at a college or university, or sometimes at a school.

The free online dictionary by FARLEX defines school as an institution for the instruction of children or people under college age.

Cambridge advanced learner's dictionary defines school as a place where children go to be educated. It can also be defined as the period of your life during which you go to school, or the teaching and learning activities which happen at school.

Rwanda Agriculture Board started One Cup of Milk per Child Program in May 2010 as an implementation of the outcomes of the IDP (Integrated Development Program) meeting held at MINALOC on 23/04/2010, the resolution that authorized MINAGRI to start the implementation of «One Cup of Milk per Child Program». At first, the program started being piloted in 6 Districts of Bugesera, Kamonyi, Nyanza, Karongi, Gakenke and Ngororero districts. After a trial period of one year and half that showed that it is possible to run a school milk program in our country, the scaling up was approved in the meeting chaired by Right Honourable Prime Minister on 22/07/2011 and started being implemented in October 2011.

In the up said meeting, MINAGRI was recommended to scale up the program to other Districts and Schools and to increase the number of children beneficiaries from 21,300 to 100,000. MINEDUC and MINISANTE were also requested to assist to identify the needy Districts and Schools. After different concertration meetings of the three concerned Ministries plus MINALOC, eight (8) new Districts of Nyamagabe, Nyaruguru, Gisagara, Huye, Nyamasheke, Rubavu, Rutsiro, Ngoma and Ngororero was retained to enter in the scaling up of the program. Ngororero District was in the pilot phase with 5 schools and 5 new schools were retained in the scaling up of the program. A part from the new districts which were scaled up to be in the program, some other new schools from existing Districts were also added by the year 2013 and among them six schools were from Nyanza, two from Ruhango and four new schools from Gisagara. Currently, the program is being implemented in 112 schools from fifteen Districts and eighty three thousand and five hundred and seventh five (83,575) pupils are on the program.

The selection criterion of those districts was based on the 2010 report on malnutrition status in our Country especially among children. The number of schools retained by District was also based on the malnutrition rate in each District as the priority is given to the neediest as compared to the allocated budget.

The pupils are given milk of standard quality from Rwandan recognized dairies namely

INYANGE INDUSTRIES and AGRO PROCESSING INDUSTRIES (API) and they take half liter twice a week which makes whole liter per week. (MINAGRI 2013)

Table 1 Table showing the current distribution of milk among children of primary schools of Huye.

Figure 1 Figure showing children having milk at their disposal in Nyanza district

Nyanza District: Pupils aligning when they are approaching their classes after being served milk by their class teachers. (Nyanza serves fermented milk)

According to MINAGRI, in charge of distributing milk among schools, government is the only funder of the program having to spend 2,401,200,000 frw per year. Each child is supposed to consume one litre per week and the children who are currently covered by this program are estimated to be 83,375 children. Within Huye district only 5 schools have the program with 2236 children currently covered with the program.

2.1.2 Dropout

By definition, dropout is a person who has abandoned a course of study or who has rejected conventional society to pursue an alternative lifestyle.

School dropout, also, in its simplest meaning is the untimely withdrawal from school. These students who withdraw from school prematurely end up not obtaining any certificate of graduation (Ajaja. 2012). However in this study student dropout refers to the situation in which students fail to complete a course of study within the usual time.

School dropout can be defined in different manner according to the field in which the study is based on. In such way CALD3 dictionary defines it as a person who leaves school, college or university before finishing a course, or a person who leaves in an unusual way.

The percentage of pupils who leave the school without completing the grade they were enrolled in during the school year. Dropout rate can also be obtained by subtracting the sum of promotion rate and repetition rate from 100 in a given school year. (MINEDUC 2013)

2.2 The literature related to causes of Dropout

It is clear that the number of children enrolled in school has increased over time.

Nevertheless, a significant proportion of children who start primary school are not completing this cycle.

There are many factors associated with this dropout, some of which belong to the individual, such as poor health or malnutrition and motivation. Others emerge from children's household situations such as child labour and poverty.

2.2.1 School level factors

School level factors also play a role in increasing pressures to drop out such as teacher's absenteeism, school location and poor quality educational provision. The system of educational provision at the community level generates conditions that can ultimately impact on the likelihood of children to drop out from school. Therefore, both demand and supply driven factors, are embedded in cultural and contextual realities, which make each circumstance different. Nevertheless, it is possible to make general points about the causes of drop out.

First, there is not one single cause of drop out. Drop out is often a process rather than the result of one single event, and therefore has more than one proximate cause (Hunt, 2008).

Second, distance to schools, poor quality of education, inadequate facilities, overcrowded classrooms, inappropriate language of instruction, teacher absenteeism and, in the case of girls school safety, are common causes for school dropout (Colclough, et al. 2000).

These are seen as supply side causes of drop out, mainly driven at the school level.

Within gendered social practices, school safety seems to be an important factor for retaining girls at school, whereas availability of income generating opportunities and flexible seasonal schooling could promote school retention for boys (Colclough et al., 2000; Leach et al., 2003). Additional factors affecting motivations and decision-making relating to educational access are also keys to understanding of dropping out.

Perceptions of how education will influence lifestyle and career possibilities/probabilities, life chances in the labor market are shown to be factors in both early withdrawal and sustained access in different contexts. The availability of options to access secondary school and beyond, shape decision-making of parents regarding the continuation of children in primary level.

Perceived quality of education and the ability of children to make progress through the schooling system can affect the priority placed on schooling within the household. It is also evident that children whose parents have received some sort of schooling are more likely themselves to attend school for longer. In particular, a mother's education level often influences length of access for girls. For example in rural Pakistan, girls whose mothers have some sort of formal schooling are less likely to drop out from school (Lloyd, Mete and Grant, 2009).

2.2.2 Household (family) level factors

Poverty also interacts with other points of social disadvantage, with the interaction of factors putting further pressure on vulnerable and marginalized children to drop out (Hunt, 2008:52).

In addition, poverty appears to influence the demand for schooling, not only because it affects the inability of households to pay school fees and other costs associated with education, but also because it is associated with a high opportunity cost of schooling for children. As children grow older, the opportunity cost of education is even larger, hence increasing the pressure for children to work and earn income for the household as opposed to spending time in education.

For example, orphans, migrants, lower caste/scheduled tribe children and children from minority language groups in many, but not all, contexts have disrupted access, and are more prone to drop out.

For example, around 15 to 20 percent of Roma children in Bulgaria and 30 percent in Romania do not continue in school post Grade 4 in primary school (UNESCO, 2010). Poor indigenous girls in Guatemala are far more likely to drop out than non-poor, non-indigenous girls (UNESCO, 2010). Gendered social practices within households, communities and schools, influence differing patterns of access for girls and boys. In most contexts girls have less access and are more prone to dropping out, but increasingly, often in poor and urban environments, the pressure seems to be on boys to withdraw.

The study by Holmes (2003) found out that overall; females receive less education than males, and they tend to dropout, or are withdrawn earlier for both economic and social-cultural reasons. The study furthers argues that the opportunity cost of sending female children to school in rural areas, where girls are married quite early, is high because benefits of their schooling will not accrue to their parental household. Similarly Kasente, (2004), Kakuru, (2003) explain how early marriages influence children's dropping out of school especially as regards the girl child as it is perceived by parents that marrying off the girl child is an escape route from poverty. Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment (UPPAP, 2000) indicates that marrying off girls would benefit her family in terms of attaining bride price.

Odaga and Heneveld (1995), further note that parents worry about wasting money on the education of girls because there are most likely to get pregnant or married before completing their schooling and that once married, girls become part of another family and the parental investment in them is lost this therefore perpetuates parents discouraging the girl child from continuing with school.

Findings with regard to the impact of parent's education on schooling of children show that the children of more educated parents are more likely to be enrolled and more likely to progress further through school. Holmes, (2003) shows that this impact differs by gender, the education of the father increases the expected level of school retention of boys, and that of the mother's enhances the educational attainment of girls. Similarly other studies by Behrman et al. (1999) and Swada and Lokshin (2001) reported a consistently positive and significant coefficient of father's and mother's education at all levels of education except at secondary school level.

United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF, 1999); MOES, (1995); Government of Uganda (GOU, 1999) Horn (1992); all demonstrate that Parental decisions do affect children retention. Students whose parents monitor and regulate their activities, provide emotional support, encourage independent decision making and are generally more involved in their schooling are less likely to drop out of school (Astone and McLanalan, 1991; Rumberge et al., 1990; Rumber 1995; Odaga and Heneveld, 1995; and Russel, 2001).

Taking into account of the gender dimension of dropouts, UNICEF, (2005) notes that girls are more likely to drop out of school than boys and that pupils whose mother's have not attained any level of education will most likely dropout of school.

Russel, (2001); Bickel and Pagaiannis, (1988); Clark, (1992); and Rumberger, (1983) demonstrate that communities can influence dropout rates by providing employment opportunities during school.

While some researchers have found out that work can contribute to a student dropping out, others have showed that student employment begins to correlate with dropping out when the student regularly works over 14 hours per week (Mann 1986, 1989). Other research place the critical level for employment higher, at 20 hours per week (Winters 1986), with the likelihood of dropping out increasing with the number of hours worked.

In an account for the gender disparity in primary school dropout, Nyanzi (2001) put forward that marriage, pregnancy and sickness are major causes of drop out among girl children while amongst the boys, they include; jobs, lack of interest dismissal and fees.

2.3 The relating to consequences of school dropout and strategies to be taken

Personal and societal consequences of dropping out of school are costly. Dropouts experience Dropouts are also more likely than graduates to become dependent on welfare, engage in illegal activities, and experience health and affective problems (Rumberger , 1987). Finally, high rates of dropping out of school create a negative momentum for youth in a society, particularly during difficult economic periods when even a high school diploma does not guarantee a job. Such momentum may foster even higher dropout rate s in the future.

Most studies that investigated the predictive variable s of school dropout focused on personal (i.e... behavioral, academic, intellectual) and familial factors. These studies found that an early disruptive profile (Ensminge r & Slusarcick, 1992), low achievement in elementary school (Garnie r et al., 1997), and parental support and supervision

(Howel l & Frese, 1982; Rumberger et al., 1990) predict early withdrawal from school even after controlling for socioeconomic factors. However, as underlined by Hymel et al. (1996), far less attention has been given to the role of peers in contributing to school dropout. More than a decade ago, Parker & Asher (1987) suggested that social factors may be better estimates of leaving school without graduating for the majority of dropouts with average or above intelligence than cognitive or parental factors. The few studies that investigated the role of peers did so without considering academic and familial factor s (e.g . Elliott & Voss,1974; Cairns et al., 1989), however. Consequently, no study (to our knowledge) has considered the contribution or the role of peer-related variables above and beyond personal and familial variables in a comprehensive model intended to predict early withdrawal from school.

Two peer variable s have been linked with dropping out of school: rejection from conventional peers and association with deviant peers. For instance, many children with disruptive behaviors experience peer rejection (Coie , 1990). This is important in that peer rejection has been predictively linked, in some, but not in all studies, to dropping out of school (se e Hymel et al., 1996). In addition, many rejected children have no friends in the classroom tha t might buffe r th e impact of negative social experiences at the group level. Actually, lack of friend s may increase the risk for school disengagement. Kupersmidt et al. (1990 ) suggested that rejection from peers and lack of friend s exacerbated th e frustration s of low grades and punishment fo r low achievement and increased adolescents ' motivation to leave school prior to graduation . In support to this position, Kupersmidt (1983) showed that peer status significantly predicted late r academic adjustment even after controlling for sex, race, grade point average and child' s reputation among peers for starting fights. However, in this study, academic maladjustment included grade retention and truancy and no t jus t dropping out of school. Ollendick et al. (1992) also reported that 9-year-old rejected children failed more grades and were more likely to drop out of school 5 years late r than non-rejected children. Consequently, these negative social experiences may contribute to or mediate the link between disruptiveness and dropping out.

In addition to their independent or mediating role, peer acceptance may also condition (i.e. moderate) the propensity of disruptive or learning disabled children to drop out of school and help explain why some, but not all at risk children dropout of school.

Steinberg et al. (1992), showed that parental support for academic attainment buffered children who were unpopular with their peers from dropping out of school. However, it is also possible that social acceptance has no independent contribution to dropping out of school as indicated by finding s from Kupersmidt & Coie (1990 ) and

School and Community Perspective

General Definition: Systemic renewal calls for a continuing process of evaluating goals and objectives related to school policies, practices, and organizational structures as they impact a diverse group of learners.

«To prevent and correct serious attendance problems, schools need to change the way they are structured, improve the quality of courses, and intensify interpersonal relationships between students and teachers» (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002, p. 309).

«Research has identified a student's attitude towards the school is the single most important factor in combating truancy. It is then the responsibility of the school administrator to fashion a school where children want to attend as opposed to having to attend» (Gullatt & Lemoine,1997,p. 18).

«Systemic solutions to attendance problems will originate from a system that is made up of teachers and administrators who understand the connectedness of a supporting climate, significant relationships, engaging and challenging content and instruction, rules, policies and procedures» (Wagstaff, Combs, & Jarvis, 2000, p. 29)

General Definition: When all groups in a community provide collective support to the school, a strong infrastructure sustains a caring environment where youth can thrive and achieve.

«Truancy is costly. . . . It costs businesses, which must pay to train uneducated workers. It costs taxpayers, who must pay higher taxes for law enforcement and welfare costs for dropouts who end up on welfare rolls or underemployed» (Garry, 1996. p. 2).

Successful efforts to improve attendance view truancy as more than just a «school» issue and involve the entire community (Gullatt, & Lemoine, 1997).

General Definition: A comprehensive violence prevention plan, including conflict resolution, must deal with potential violence as well as crisis management. A safe learning environment provides daily experiences, at all grade levels, which enhance positive social attitudes and effective interpersonal skills in all students.

One of the causes of truancy is school climate, including feelings of physical safety (Heilbrunn & Seeley, 2003).

«Victims of bullying suffer consequences beyond embarrassment. Some victims experience psychological and/or physical distress, are frequently absent and cannot concentrate on school work» (Sampson, 2004, p. 12).

Bullies are more likely to be truant and drop out of school (Children who bully, n.d.).

General Definition: Birth-to-five interventions demonstrate that providing a child additional enrichment can enhance brain development. The most effective way to reduce the number of children who will ultimately drop out is to provide the best possible classroom instruction from the beginning of their school experience through the primary grades.

«Early absenteeism is an important predictor of dropping out of high school» (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002, p. 309).

General Definition: Early interventions to help low-achieving students improve their reading and writing skills establish the necessary foundation for effective learning in all subjects.

«The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics and the National Association for the Education of Young Children affirm that high-quality, challenging, and accessible mathematics education for 3- to 6-year-old children is a vital foundation for future mathematics learning» (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2005).

«Chronic truancy is often the first step on the road to illiteracy, and all its attendant ills» (American Bar Association, 2001, p. v).

General Definition: Mentoring is a one-to-one caring, supportive relationship between a mentor and a mentee that is based on trust. Tutoring, also a one-to-one activity, focuses on academics and is an effective practice when addressing specific needs such as reading, writing, or math competencies.

«Students report that having a person at school who is checking up on them, gives the sense that someone cares and motivates them to come to school» (Gonzales, Richards, & Seeley, 2002,p.12).

Two major national studies have reported positive results from mentoring programs. Tierney and Grossman (1995) report a 37% decrease in truancy among participants in the Big Brother/Big Sister programs. The Commonwealth Fund's Survey found a 52% decrease in skipping school among participants of mentoring programs (McLearn, Colasanto, & Schoen, 1998).

General Definition: Service-learning connects meaningful community service experiences with academic learning. This teaching/learning method promotes personal and social growth, career development, and civic responsibility and can be a powerful vehicle for effective school reform at all grade levels.

Service-learning helps students to see the value of education through direct experiences in the community, and the process develops more positive attitudes toward school and education in general (Garman, 1995).

«Studies of the effects of service-learning on grades, attendance, and dropout reduction indicate the value of this strategy for students who have significant risk factors» (Shumer & Duckenfield), 2004, p. 156.

General Definition: Alternative schooling provides potential dropouts a variety of options that can lead to graduation, with programs paying special attention to the student's individual social needs and academic requirements for a high school diploma.

«Among the advantages of alternative schools for students at risk of dropping out are reductions in truancy and drop-out rates, ... and re-engagement with learning and the community that can occur when students are in a more responsive and flexible environment» (Paglin & Fager, 1997, p. 3).

«Graduates of alternative schools report that alternative school experiences made all the difference in helping them to become productive citizens» (Morley, 2002, p. 40).

General Definition: Many schools provide after-school and summer enhancement programs that eliminate information loss and inspire interest in a variety of areas. Such experiences are especially important for students at risk of school failure because they fill the afternoon «gap time» with constructive and engaging activities.

«After school sports or other programs at the school site give students a chance to make new friends, experience a positive atmosphere, and feel a sense of accomplishment, which, in turn, may reduce their likelihood of skipping school» (DeKalb, 1999, p. 3).

«Well-designed and effectively implemented after-school programs add to the chances that at-risk students will stay out of trouble, stay in school, and stay engaged with their education» ( Peterson & Fox, 2004, p.183).

2.4 Summary of the literature review

Considering the opinions and ideas from the literature review, it can be noticed that although countries committed their efforts to strengthen their education systems, such as increase in enrolment rate, there still are difficulties that their systems facing, more specifically dropout that cause certain children to lose benefit from education due to various factors as mentioned in the literature above. This situation exposes those countries to taking certain measures or reactions in response to avoid the impact of those factors, mainly dropout from schools as well as consequences associated with them. As it was shown above dropping out of school have serious consequences for students, their families. Students who decided to drop out of school face social stigma, fewer job opportunities, lower salaries, and higher probability of involvement with the criminal justice system.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

Swetnam (2004) defined research methodology as the way to tackle the question of «how am I going to find out the answers?».The purpose of this chapter is identifying the appropriate methodology that is undertaken for this study. This methodology demonstrates the entire process of this study, as well as an analysis of the various research methods employed during the conduct of the research. This section describes the practical procedures for carrying out the study.

It gives the details of the research design that were adopted, population study, sampling procedures, data collection procedures, and the final data analysis techniques that will apply. It gives the framework within which data are collected and analyzed.

Additionally, this chapter examines the research methodology suitable for analyzing the «Impact of one cup of milk per child on children dropout». The methodology demonstrates the entire research process as well as an analysis of the various research techniques that have been administered. Besides, this chapter considers the research design and methodology on which the memoire is based.

3.2. General Description of the study

In this section, the following items are described: population study, sample size determination and sampling techniques, description of the instruments of data collection, data processing, data analysis, and limitation of the study.

3.2.1. Research design

Christensen (1991); defines research design as an outline, a plan or a strategy specifying the procedures to be used in investigating the research problem. It is simply the framework or plan a study used as a guide in collecting and analyzing data. For the purpose of the current study the survey method will be adopted.

The research Design of this study is exploratory means and descriptive, that it will involve testing a hypothesis and deriving that hypothesis from available theories. To gather the needed data, fieldwork will be conducted in Huye primary schools using double data collection methods. Questionnaire and interview sheets will be used to get perception and clear profile of the impact of one cup of milk per child on dropout of schools. The data was analyzed and presented in comparative format.

This study will involve both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data collection technique is subjective in nature since it involves examining the perception of teachers. Numerical data analysis and statistical tests are objective in nature and deal with measuring phenomena. For this study, regression analysis will be conducted; frequencies and hypotheses testing will be used.

3.2.2. Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of one cup of milk per child program on children dropout within Huye primary schools.

3.2.3. Study process

The study is fully described and understood. It was important to analyze in the process through which the study is conducted. This study holds both quantitative and qualitative study because during the study numerical data was collected and analyzed. In this research qualitative hypothesis testing was used because during the study theoretical elements in depth interviews were considered.

3.2.5. Outcome of the study

The outcome of the study will be used by proceeding researchers in the related field, decision makers, public sectors and others with interest of promoting standards of living through the promotion of primary school learning.

2 .3 Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework represents the relationship between variables in the study diagrammatically. The factors that influence the school dropout within Huye district are illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.

The dependent variable is the school level of dropout which is affected positively or negatively by different variables including school level, household level, and community level factors.

The independent variables that can affect positively or negatively the levels of dropout are: the illiteracy of child's parents, child's family poverty, long distance from school, failure or repetition, etc.

Figure 2 Conceptual Framework between Level of dropout and factors affecting it

3.4 Geographical location of huye district

The district of Huye is located in the southern province of the Republic of Rwanda, whereby it is known as one of advanced regions in education industry of Rwanda. This district is the one which recognized the existence of the first University to be in Rwanda since 1963. Besides this Huye district has known famous schools in secondary studies as well as in primary learning. Basing on the intention the researcher in conducting this research, Huye district currently is employing 1100 teachers within primary schools who are counted within only 98 primary schools which are under the supervision of the director in charge of education within the district.

Certain schools are located in urban areas whereas others are found in rural areas of Huye district.

3.5 Population study, Sample size and Sampling techniques

Grinnell et al (1990) defined population as the totality of persons or objects concerned with the study. Manheim & Rich (1995) define population as a set cases about which one wishes to draw some conclusions. In this research the populations are all primary schools of Huye.

The sample survey will be applied on selected schools with and without the program of one cup of milk per child in HUYE district. The population sample which will be used in the research was 60 teachers as well as headmasters from selected schools in Huye district. The researcher will collect data from the sample by using questionnaires and interviews.

3.5.2 Sampling design

Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.

MARK .L. and David (1990) state that it is usually too time consuming, costly cumbersome and insufficient to motivate, do or obtain a complete census or count of the target population. Thus, the researcher decides it is his goal to make inferences about the entire population inclusive in the research study. However though a necessary evil, this is contrary to some scholars as they ideally feel that the whole population should be used to get the information for the researcher.

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher adopted in selecting items for the sample.

· The likelihood that it will cost less to sample than to do a census, why ask all people within primary schools Huye, when you can reliably get what you need to know by asking a few among them?

3.5.3 Sample size determination

To ensure that all people were equally represented, the researcher used proportional stratified sampling as shown in table below as a result 60 teachers in selected primary schools were selected at 95% of confidence level.

3.6. Description of the instruments of data collection

The researcher will use the questionnaire, interview schedule and documentation.

3.6.1. Questionnaire

As defined by Grinnell and Williams (1990) questionnaire is a set of questions which calls for responses on the part of the client, may be self administered or group administered. This method is used to collect data from respondents hoping to get people's perceptions, feelings and views since each respondent will be given time to fill the structured questionnaire and justifications for the responses given whenever it was necessary.

3.6.2. Interview schedule

Unlike the questionnaire, the researcher himself will use a set of structured questions where questions will be read to the respondents and answers given will be recorded. Due to the importance of the information from some respondents in the institutions of the study and due to the limited time these people may have to fill the questionnaire, the interview schedule may be found appropriate to save time and have this important information at the research disposal.

3.6.3. Documentation

Documentation is another technique that will be used along with interviews and questionnaires. This involves primary analysis of related documents. By this instrument, literature was reviewed especially the writings of other authors on the subject matter of the study.

3.7. Data Processing and Analysis

Data processing is broadly, the collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful information. In this sense it can be considered a subset of processing, the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. It is important to show the various tools at which the data were obtained from the field.

Data analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal(the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data.

3.7.1. Coding

Coding will be used to summarize data by classifying different responses in categories that are easily understandable.

3.7.2. Editing

Editing refers to a process whereby errors are eliminated whenever identified in interview schedules and the questionnaires. The researcher followed this procedure in order to minimize errors and mistakes. Unnecessary phrases, words and repetitions, and other sorts of such kind will be minimized to facilitate accuracy, uniformity legibility and consistency of data to the best of the researcher.

3.7.3. Tabulation

The tabulation process will involve determination of the frequency of the responses for every variable and fixing data into statistical tables. Kakinda (1990) says that after data is edited and coding frame established, and data coded, it is often tabulated and may undergo other statistical manipulation.

3.8 Methods of data analysis

The researcher used two types of methodologies, namely: descriptive statistics (frequency statistics and bivariate analysis) and multivariate analysis using multinomial logistic regression which was used to identify the direction of effect for each independent variable adjusting for the others on the level of dropout existing in schools within whhich this research was conducted.

3.8.1 Descriptive statistics

The descriptive statistics of variables is important for summarizing the characteristics of the sample. Bivariate analysis using chi-square test was used to identify if there is a relationship between the dependent variable and each independent variable.

E is the expected frequency in the corresponding category of independent variable

3.8.2 Multivariable analysis

Multivariable logistic regression analysis extends the techniques of multiple regression analysis to research situations in which the outcome variable is categorical (Dayton 1992). Generally, logistic regression is well suited for describing and testing hypotheses about relationships between a categorical outcome variable and more categorical predictor variables. Multinomial logistic regression was typically used in this study because the dependent variable has more than two categories (Bender and Grouven 1997)

The conditional likelihood by a set of parameters (

) given data (x and

) is

. Intuitively,

follows a probability distribution that is different for x, but x itself is never unknown, so there is no need to have a probabilistic model of it. For each x there is different distribution of

, but all these distributions share the same parameters (

). Given data consisting of (

) pairs, the principle of maximum conditional likelihood says to choose a parameter estimate

that maximizes the product

. Note that we do not need to assume that

are independent in order to justify the conditional likelihood being a product; we just need to assume that

are dependent when each is conditioned on its own

. For any specific value of x,

can then be used to predict values for y; we assume that we never want to predict values of x. Suppose that y is a multinomial outcome and that x is a real-valued vector. We can assume that the distribution of y is a fixed nonlinear function of a linear function of x. Specifically. We assume the conditional model:

Responses (

's) are categorical variables with more than two categories (coded 1 for high level, code 2 for middle level, coded 3 for low level of dropout). Predictor values (

's) can be categorical. We are interested in modeling

in terms of

is a multinomial random variable, whose proportion parameter

depends on predictors' variable

. The ratio

is called the odds of the event y given and

is called the log of odds. Since probabilities ranged between 0 and 1, odds range between 0 and 1, odds range between 0 and

, log odds range unboundedly between

. A linear expression of the form

can also take unbounded values, so it is reasonable to use a linear expression as a model for log odds, but not as a model for odds for odds or for probabilities. Essentially, logistic regression is the simplest reasonable model for a categorical outcome that depends linearly on predictors

. For each feature i,

is a multiplicative scaling factor on the odds

. If the predictor

is real-valued, then

is the extra odds of having the outcome y=1 when the value of

increased by one unit.

In fact, the ratio is the probability of occurrence of an event to the probability of its not occurrence. If there is a probability

for the level of dropout, then the odds can be considered the ratio of the probability for the level of dropout over the probability for no dropout.

An odds ratio (OR) is a measure of association between an exposure and an outcome. The OR represents the odds that an outcome will occur given a particular exposure, compared to the odds of the outcome occurring in the absence of that exposure.

Multinomial logistic regression models make it possible to estimate the probability for dropout level on the combination of independent variables included in the model.

3.9. Limitation of the Study

· Limited access to secondary data concerning the records relating to the program since the starting time of its implementation

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

As reviewed in chapter two, the level of dropout within primary schools was influenced by various independent varibles either positively or negatively. Therefore, this chapter showed whether those factors including one cup of milk per child program, long distance from school, prent's illiteracy, family poverty, etc. Influence the level of dropout within primary schools of Huye.

Whithin this chapter the researcher dealt with the analysis and interpretation of the data collected for the achievement of the objectives as described in chapter one. It involved the presentation of data, discussion of major findings of the study and their interpretation. Percentage, frequencies were used as means of analyzing and interpreting the data, some hypotheses were tested using statistical tests such as chi-square.To make data analysis more understandable and clear, data collected was analyzed, tested and interpreted before drawing conclusion. The analysis was made on sample of 60 primary school teachers as well as headmasters of the selected schools taken from the whole population of the schools in Huye district. The statistical analysis package used during the analysis was SPSS version 16.

4.2. Profile of respondents:

The following results have been found by discussing with about 60 primary teachers from 4 selected primary schools of Huye. the aim was to make the findings of the study more easily analyzed, presented and interpreted . The aim was evaluating whether the milk provision into primary schools can contribute to the reduction of school dropout and testing the impact that other factors have on the dropout level.

Below is the Figure 4 showing the distribution of respondents by both their level of education and gender whereby 33.3 percent were male categorized into 30 percent having secondary level of education and technical studies and 3.3 percent of those with university level and other higher learning institutions. Females were counted to 66.7 percent divided into 55 of those with secondary education leve and 11.7 percent of those with university and other higher learning institutions.

4.2 Results from the percentage distribution of respondents by the level of dropout

Before describing the bivariate analysis and multinomial logistic analysis, the study shows how the level to which students were dropping out of schools by describing the percentages of each category as mentioned in the table 4.1.

The table 4.1 illustrates that among all respondents to whom the research was conducted, 33.3 percent of them reported that the level of dropout within their schools was high while 23.3 percent reported that the dropout within their schools was at the middle level. Finally, 43.3 percent which represents the highest ratio reported that the dropout in their schools was low.

Variables		Percent
Distance from school	Yes	56.7
	No	43.3
	Total	100.0
Parents' illiteracy	Yes	76.7
	No	23.3
	Total	100.0
Child's Family poverty	Yes	81.7
	No	18.3
	Total	100.0
One cup of milk per child	Yes	55.0
	No	45.0
	Total	100.0
Failure or repetition	Yes	78.3
	No	21.7
	Total	98.3
Child employment	Yes	80.0
	No	20.0
	Total	100.0

Table 4.2 shows that out of all respondents questioned whether there is an influence of the distance from schools to the dropout decision of children, 56.7 percent of respondents confirmed that it has an influence whereas 43.3 percent neglected its influence on dropout. Concerning the parents' illiteracy impact on dropout, 76.7 percent confirmed its impact against 23.3 percent who denied its effect. Family poverty of children was agreed to influence the dropout by 81.7 percent of respondents against 18.3 who denied its effect. Out of respondents who were asked whether the program of one cup of milk per child can help reducing the dropout level within schools 88.3 percent affirmed its effect against 11.7 percent who neglected it. Failure or repetition of children was mentioned to be among the causes of dropout at 78.3 percent whereas 21.7 percent denied its effect. Finally, child employment was considered among causes of dropout by 80 percent of respondents while 20 percent did not consider it.

4.3 Descriptive statistics of causes of dropouts by the level of dropout

Table 6 Percentage distribution of factors affecting dropout by the level of dropout

VARIABLES		LEVEL OF DROPOUT			TOTAL
VARIABLES		HIGH	MIDDLE	LOW	TOTAL
Distance from school	Yes	26.5	32.4	41.2	100.0
	No	42.3	11.5	46.2	100.0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
Parents' illiteracy	Yes	32.6	30.4	37.0	100.0
	No	35.7	0.0	64.3	100.0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
Child's Family poverty	Yes	36.7	20.4	42.9	100.0
	No	18.2	36.4	45.5	100. 0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
One cup of milk per child	Yes	12.1	18.2	69.7	100.0
	No	59.3	29.6	11.1	100.0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
Failure or repetition	Yes	34.0	23.4	42.6	100.0
	No	30.8	23.1	46.2	100.0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
Child employment	Yes	37.5	20.8	41.7	100.0
	No	16.7	33.3	50.0	100.0
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0
Place of residence	Urban	27.6	20.7	51.7	100.0
	Rural	38.7	25.8	35.5	100
	Total	33.3	23.3	43.3	100.0

The table 6 shows the percentage distribution of between variables affecting the dropout and the level of dropout.

4.3.1 Distance from school

The table 6 illustrates that among the respondents who affirmed the distance from school to be one of dropout causes, 26.5 percent were from schools with high level of dropout while 32.4 percent were from schools with middle level of dropout and 41.2 percent were from schools with the low level of dropout. On the other side, respondents who denied the influence of distance from school to the dropout level, 42.3 percent among them were from schools with high level of dropout, while 11.5 percent were from schools with middle level of dropout, and the other 46.2 were from schools with the low level of dropout.

4.3.2 Parents' illiteracy

The table 6 shows that out of respondents who confirmed the impact of parents' illiteracy on children's dropout decision, 37.0 percent representing the highest percentage were from low level dropout schools against 30.4 percent representing the lowest percentage were from the middle level dropout schools. While on the other, among those who underestimated the influence of parents' illiteracy on children decision to dropout, 35.7 percent were from high level of dropout schools against 64.3 percent who were from schools with low level of dropout.

4.3.3 Child's Family poverty

The highest percent of respondents, who were for the influence of family poverty towards the dropout of a child, 42.9 percent were from the low level of dropout schools against the lowest percentage which is 20.4. while the highest percentage of those who were against its influence on dropout is 45.5 percent against 18.2 percent representing the smallest value.

4.3.4 One cup of milk per child

Among the respondents upon who the study was conducted, the highest percentage of those who confirmed the relationship between one cup of milk per child and dropout was 69.7 from the schools with low level of dropout, the lowest percent of them (26.4 percent) were from schools with high level of dropout. For those who did not agree with its influence on dropout, the highest percentage, which is 59.3, was from schools with high level of dropout against 11.1 percent representing the lowest.

4.3.5 Failure or repetition of children

The figure 6 demonstrate that 42.6 percent representing the highest percentage who agreed with that failure or repetition of children may be a trigger to the decision of children to drop out were from the low level of dropout schools against 23.4 percent representing the smallest who were from the middle level ones. For those who against its influence, 46.2 percent representing the highest value were from the low level of dropout schools against 23.1 percent from the middle level ones.

Figure 5 Distribution of respondents to whether the school has the program or no by the level of dropout.

According to the figure 5, illustration was made concerning the level of dropout to whether the school has the program or does not. It is shown that among schools with high level of dropout 26.67 percent were from schools without the one cup of milk per child program against 6.67 percent from schools with the program. Besides that, in the middle level of dropout schools 13.33 percent respondents were from schools with the program whereas other 10 percent were from schools without the program. Finally, among schools with the low level of dropout 38.33 percent were from schools having the one cup of milk per child program against 5 percent from schools without the program.

Figure 6 Figure showing the distribution of consequences to child's family by the level of dropout

As illustrated in figure 6 above, to all respondents questioned about the consequences families of dropped out children, 13.33 percent representing the highest percentage among schools with high level of education replied that families experience the increased cost related to dropping out of their children whereas 8.33 percent representing the lowest percentage among schools with high level of education replied that families experience the decreased future earnings of their dropped out children. Moreover, among schools with middle level of dropout, 13.33 percent mentioned that families face the increased cost related to dropout whereas 3.33 percent (the lowest ratio) considered the cost related to the involvement of the dropout in abnormal activities. Finally, among schools with low level of dropout, 21.67 percent, representing the biggest ratio, replied that families will be exposed to the decreased earnings in future from their children who dropped out while only 10 percent standing for the lowest percentage among low level of dropout schools said that the consequences to families of the dropped out children will be among others the cost related to the involvement of their children in abnormal activities.

Figure7 Distribution of respondents to the consequences to school against the level of dropout.

Figure 7 shows that out of all respondents among schools with high level of education, 23.3 percent mentioned decrease in education performance as a major consequence from school dropout against 1.7 percent representing the lowest percentage who said that dropout causes burden to teachers once children are resuming back to their previous classes as they would have progressed to next class levels. In addition, 10 percent among schools with the middle level of dropout considered the major consequence associated with dropout to be the decrease in education performance against only 1.7 percent in the sense that consequences of dropout are out the mentioned ones. Eventually, the 16.67 percent of respondents from schools with low level of dropout suggested that decrease in education performance can be a major consequence of school dropout whereas 1.7 percent did not find any of those mentioned consequences but said that consequences associated with dropout are not in range of the mentioned ones.

Figure 8 Distribution of respondents regards consequences of dropout to a country by the level of dropout.

Source: primary data

Figure 8 shows that for all respondents categorized by level of dropout, increase in illiteracy level was confirmed by 21.67 percent from high level of dropout schools against 10 percent from middle level representing the lowest percentage who considered it to be among major consequences of dropout at the national level. Secondary, fail to achieve the expected level of education for all was claimed by 15 percent from low level of dropout schools against 6.67 percent representing the lowest percentage from middle level of dropout schools. Increased future cost due to illiteracy was mentioned by 6.67 percent from high level of dropout schools whereas other levels have an equal 5 percent. Finally 1.67 percent for both middle and low level of mentioned other consequences to the country due to dropout.

4.4 Results from bivariate analysis using chi-square test

The relationship between independent variables, namely distance from school, child's failure or repetition, child's family poverty, parents' illiteracy of children, child employment, the place of residence, as well as the one cup of milk per child program to the level of dropout within schools is presented in table 4.4. A chi-square test at 0.05 significant level was used to examine the association between all the above mentioned factors to the dropout level.

Table 7 Chi- square test table illustrating association between level of dropout and its factors

Variables	Values ()	Degree of freedom	P-values	Test of association
Distance from school	3.928	2	0.14	No association
Parents' illiteracy	6.142	2	0.046	Weak association
Child's Family poverty	1.922	2	0.383	No association
One cup of milk per child	22.495	2	0.000	Strong association
Failure or repetition	0.064	2	0.969	No association
Child employment	2.047	2	0.359	No association
Place of residence	1.636	2	0.441	No association

Many studies reviewed in chapter two have illustrated various types of factors affecting the primary school dropout. This study illustrates that the link between the distance from school and the level of dropout; Chi-square test shows that the distance from school is not statistically associated with the level of dropout because it p-value is greater than the level of significance (p>

; 0.14>0.05). Looking to the one cup of milk per child program has a strong relationship with the dropout level within schools as its p-value is less than the level of significance (p<

; 0.000<0.05) and again parents' illiteracy was proved to have a weak relationship the level of dropout within schools as long as its p-value found is less than the level of significance (p<

; 0.046<0.05) while the factors family poverty, failure or repetition of children, children employment, and place of residence of schools were all demonstrated to have no significant relationship with the level of dropout as their respective p-values were greater than the level of significance (0.383, 0.969, 0.359, 0.441>0.05).

The chi-square analysis shows the relationship between the level of dropout and the factors affecting the dropout of children at primary level. Only one cup of milk per child program was proved to have a strong relationship with the dropout level. In addition to the one cup of milk per child program, parents' illiteracy was illustrated to have a weak relationship with the level of dropout against other factors family poverty, distance from school, place of residence of schools, failure or repetition child employment who had no significant relationship with the level of dropout.

A bivariate analysis was used to examine the relationship between each independent variable and dropout within primary schools, especially for the level of dropout. The findings from bivariate analysis illustrate whether there is an association among independent variables and the level of dropout. A bivariate analysis among two variables does not necessarily imply a significant causal relationship between them. The multinomial logistic regression analysis method was preferred in this study, which allowed the identification of the effect of each independent variable on the level of dropout. Only one cup of milk per child program and parents' illiteracy were considered up to this step as long as they are the only variables with significant relationship with the level of dropout.

During this analysis, two models were displayed, the first model was high level of dropout to low level of dropout and the second was middle level of dropout against the low level of dropout. The table 4.5 illustrates the coefficients that were used to build those models.

At which level is the dropout within your school ?^a		B	Std. Error	df	Sig.
At which level is the dropout within your school ?^a		B	Std. Error	df	Sig.
High	Intercept	1.362	.881	1	.122
	[one_cup_milk=1]	-3.420	.834	1	.000
	[one_cup_milk=2]	0^b	.	0	.
	[illiteracy=1]	.441	.908	1	.627
	[illiteracy=2]	0^b	.	0	.
Middle	Intercept	-17.740	.744	1	.000
	[one_cup_milk=1]	-2.314	.875	1	.008
	[one_cup_milk=2]	0^b	.	0	.
	[illiteracy=1]	19.136	.000	1	.
	[illiteracy=2]	0^b	.	0	.

The logistic regression model for the high level of dropout is displayed here below:

The logistic regression model for middle level of dropout is displayed as follows:

The logistic regression coefficients indicate the direction of the relationship by showing which factors increase or decline the likelihood of high level of dropout within schools. The odds ratios represent the change in odds of being in one of the categories of outcome when the value of a predictor increases by one unit. For categorical independent variables, the test provides a separate coefficient for each category of the variable. In addition, a positive logistic regression coefficient for any category of an independent variable is associated with an odds ratio greater than one, which indicates that this category has a greater likelihood of experiencing the event relative to the reference category.

The one cup of milk per child program is associated with the level of dropout within schools with a negative direction for both yes and no coded values. The one cup of milk per child is 3.42 times likely to decrease the high level of dropout, 2.314 times likely to decrease the middle level of dropout within primary schools.

The parents' illiteracy of children has a positive influence on the level of dropout within primary schools, the Yes coded value is 0.441 times likely to increase the high level of dropout within primary schools, and is 19.136 times likely to increase the middle level of dropout within schools.

The multinomial logistic regression was used for groups of variables to predict the change of probabilities for the level of dropout based on the combination of independent variables included in the model. The probabilities that a school will have the dropout (high and middle level) are presented below:

The probability for a school to have a high level of dropout with the one cup of milk per child program and experiencing parents' illiteracy of children is calculated as the following:

The probability for a school to have a middle level of dropout having the program of one cup of milk per child and experiencing the illiteracy of child's parents is forth below demonstrated:

The probability for a school having both one cup of milk per child and experiencing the illiteracy of child's parents to be at a middle level of dropout is higher, with about 29 percent, than the probability of being at a high level of dropout, with almost 17 percent.

This chapter presents the summary of research work, the major findings concerned the Impact of one cup of milk per child on dropout reduction are also given, furthermore the chapter presents down conclusions and recommendations concerning policies, measures and strategies that can be undertaken for dropout eradication among primary schools of Rwanda. The study was conducted in 4 selected Huye primary schools, two having one cup of milk per child program and other two without the program.

The main objective of the study was to analyze the impact of one cup of milk per child program on school dropout. The study further had the specific objectives which were:

To identify the causes influencing primary school dropout in Huye district; To examine the relationship between one cup of milk per child and school dropout level in primary schools of Huye district; To find out the consequences associated with school dropout in Huye district.

Basing on the objectives of the study primary data was collected with the use of questionnaire distributed among respondents; other data collection methods that were used by researcher to obtain data were documentation, interview, as well as observation.

The findings revealed that majority of selected respondents accordingly their gender female occupied a higher percentage of respondents with 67.7 percent. Accordingly their educational level, those with secondary and technical education level occupied 85 percent this means that female in education industry are abundant that is to say that empowering girl's education is at the same time providing a sustainable education system.

For all respondents on whom the study was conducted, the greater percentage was that of the low level of dropout schools reaching 43.3 percent, though a lot has been made towards the growth of education system in Rwanda but there is still a need to keep on track improving the system for other levels such as high and middle, counting 56.7 percent, to be totally eradicated from primary schools within Rwanda.

Among all factors of dropout discussed about in the literature, the respondents mentioned that distance from schools, parents' illiteracy, child's family poverty, one cup of milk per child, failure or repetition of children, and child's employment as well as the school location are influencing the level of dropout within schools.

In order to determine relationship between level of dropout and factors affecting it, chi-square test of relationship was used where the level of significance was 5 percent; the findings of the study indicate that there is a strong relationship between one cup of milk per child with 0.000 (p-value) and the level of dropout within primary schools, while a weak relationship was proved from the findings between the level of dropout and parents' illiteracy with 0.046 (p-value). This indicates that as long as parents' illiteracy persists it is hard for policy makers to eradicate the dropout within primary schools and again for policy makers to ensure the decreased level of dropout one cup of milk per child program can better serve as a strategy for dropout reduction.

The most of respondents (38.33 percent) from schools with low level of dropout reported that their schools had one cup of milk per child program. The most of respondents (26.67 percent) who reported that their schools had not one cup of milk per child were from schools with high level of dropout schools. This is to mean that the reason behind this difference was due to the existence of one cup of milk per child

The most of respondents (21.67 percent) from schools with low level of dropout said that consequence families are facing due to dropout is experiencing the decreased future earnings of the dropped out children. In addition, the majority of respondents (23.3 percent) from schools with low level of dropout reported that school will be facing a deacrease in education performance. Finally, 21.67 percent presenting high number of percentage, from schools with low level of dropout, considered the increase in illiteracy level to be the major consequence that a country will be exposed to due to dropout.

Results from multiple logistic regression model have shown that, the dropout within schools with high level of dropout is strongly affected by the one cup of milk per child program with a coefficient of relationship equates by -3.42; not only that but also it is affected by parents' illiteracy with a negative coefficient 0.441. this indicate that the increase in one repondent with yes response to one cup of milk per child factor will result in the increase of 3.42 units of high level of dropout schools, and the increase in one respondent with yes response to illiteracy of parents will result in 0.441 units increase of high level of dropout within primary schools. This can be illustrate with the use of some authors such as Lloyd and Grant who said that perceived quality of education and the ability of children to make progress through the schooling system can affect the priority placed on schooling within the household. It is also evident that children whose parents have received some sort of schooling are more likely themselves to attend school for longer. In particular, a mother's education level often influences length of access for girls. For example in rural Pakistan, girls whose mothers have some sort of formal schooling are less likely to drop out from school (Lloyd, Mete and Grant, 2009). Therefore it is clear that parents' education is mainly affecting positively the dropout level. While on the other side, some authors have shown that school feeding programs are contributing towards the reduction of eradication of dropout.

In regards to one cup of milk per child program, it is shown in table 8 that having one cup of milk per child of a given school will be significantly associated with the level of dropout within schools with high level of dropout[ p=0.000 with degree of freedom=1] and with a coefficient of correlation equals -3.42. While the illiteracy of parents will statistically affect the leve of dropout [p=0.627 df=1] with a coefficient of correlation equals 0.441.

Besides, in the middle level of dropout schools, one cup of milk per child program will affect it

REFERENCE

1. Action. The International Bank for Reconstruction / World Bank, Washington DC.

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APPENDIX

I BIRASA Fabrice, am an undergraduate student at University of Rwanda - Huye campus, School of Economics, Department of Applied Statistics presently conducted an academic research entitled: «IMPACT OF ONE CUP OF MILK PER CHILD ON SCHOOL DROPOUT» and am kindly asking you to complete the attached questionnaire. Your Frank responses will be of a great help towards this study. This study is purely for academic purpose and the information provided will be confidentially treated. All questions asked are completely for the assessment of the real situation. Please be as accurate as possible to enable this research get valid information. For any additional support or advice towards the achievement of this work, you are welcome. Contact: 0787564662/0725114672

*Section I : Identification of the respondent*
N⁰	Question		Coding categories
1	What is your gender?		1=male 2=female
2	What is your marital status?		1=single 2=married 3=Widowed 4=separated
3	What is your level of education?		1=primary 2=Secondary and technical school 3=University and above
4	What is your post in this school?		1=teacher 2=headmaster 3=secretary 4=Accountant 5=Subcontract 6=other, specify..........
5	How long have you been in education career?		1=below one year 2=between 1-3 years 3= between 3-5 years 4= 5 years and above
Section II: Information related to the causes of primary school dropout in Huye district and strategies to be taken.
6	Do you use to observe children dropout case within your school?	1=Yes 2=No
7	If yes, at which level is it happening?	1=high, 2=middle 3=low
8	If yes to question 6, what are the main causes of the same case (dropout)?	1=child live afar from school 2= child's family poverty 3=repetition or failure of children 5= illiteracy of child's parents 6=child labour 8=others, specify................
9	If yes to question 6, what was the economic status of family of the dropped out child?	3=rich 1=poor 2=slightly poor
10	If not to question 6, have you ever observed it in any other school?	1=yes 2=No
11	What do you think were the main reasons of that dropout?	1=child live afar from school 2= child's family poverty 3=repetition or failure of children 4= child labour 5=corporal punishment 6=others, specify...............
12	What are the consequences have you identified faced by dropped out children?	1=criminal involvement 2=premature sexual activity, early pregnancy and marriage 3=ignorance 4=violence, alcohol, drag abduction, and suicide. 5= other, specify.........
13	What are the consequences faced by the school out of which he dropped?	1=decrease in education performance 2=fail to attain the education for all goal. 3= other, specify.......
14	What are the consequences to families from which the dropped out children come?	1=experience the decreased earnings 2=increased cost related to dropping out 3=cost related to the involvement of their children in abnormal activities 4= other, specify..............
15	What are the consequences to the state in general of children dropout?	1= increase illiteracy level 2= fail to achieve the expected level of education for all 3= increased future cost due to illiteracy. 4= other, specify..........
16	In your suggestion, what are the main strategies that could be undertaken to avoid the dropout of children in primary schools?	1=reinforcement of one cup of milk per child and other related programs 2=abortion of severe punishment 3=abortion of children repetition 4=building schools nearby neighborhood of children 5= abortion of child labour 6= other, specify......
Section III: Information related to one cup of milk per child in primary schools
17	Does this school have the one cup of milk per child program?			1=Yes 2=No
18	If yes to question 17, what do you see of importance with the above mentioned program?			1= decrease malnutrition 2=reduce school dropout rate 3=increase school enrolment rate 4= increase pupils performance 5=others, specify.....
29	According to your point of view, can one cup of milk per child program be taken as one of programs for dropout reduction strategy?			1=Yes 2=No
20	In your suggestion, would one cup of milk per child program increase the primary enrollment rate within your school?			1=Yes 2=No

Impact of one cup of milk per child program on school dropout in Huye district