2.3.6 Language-based Barriers to Communication
DeSantis (1999, p.92) says that «Although it takes little
physical effort to say something to someone, it does take mental effort to
ensure that what we say conveys our intended meaning. Even if we create what we
think is the perfect message, the possibility always exists that the
receiver will misinterpret the message or find it ambiguous».
Therefore, he adds that «Misunderstandings occurs for
numerous physical, mental, and cultural reasons. Ineffective use of language is
one reason. Among the most common language based barriers to effective
communication are bypassing, indiscrimination, and polarisation» (op cit.,
p.93)
Here, the bypassing is defined as a misunderstanding between a
sender and a receiver when what is meant by the speaker differs from what is
heard and understood by the listener. The indiscrimination is a form of
perceptual set in which a person chooses to ignore differences and changes in
events, things and people. The author gives an example of the statement
«Students cheat in school» which may be interpreted to
include all students instead of some students. Then, the polarisation is the
tendency to view things in terms of extremes- rich or poor, beautiful or ugly,
good or bad, etc.- even though most things exists somewhere in between.
Therefore, if the structure «either-or», as an aspect of
language, is used to take such extreme positions, the language used can cause
polarisation and then hinder the effectiveness of communication. (op cit.)
2.4. Definition and Views on Communicative Competence
2.4.1. Definition of the Communicative Competence
According to Richards, Platt and Platt (1992, p.65) quoted in
Kilfoil and Walt (1997, p.12), the communicative competence is «The
ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form
grammatically correct sentences, but also to know when and where to use these
sentences and to whom». Kilfoil and Walt add that communicative competence
goes beyond the formal language taught in the classroom and it includes
sociolinguistic rules. Therefore, a language learner has to know the culture of
the target language group and has to be able to function socially as well as
linguistically. In this way, he can know what the first-language speaker would
regard as impolite or rude, what type of question to ask or not, how to get
angry in the target language and how to reproach without being rude. (op
cit.)
Hymes quoted in Rivers (1983, p.14) defines the communicative
competence as «What a speaker needs to know to communicate effectively in
culturally significant settings». Similarly, DeSantis (1999, p.25),
quoting O'Hair, Friedrich, Wiemann and Wiemann, say that «Communication
competencies are skills and understanding that enable communication partners to
exchange messages appropriately and effectively» Then, Hymes (1972), cited
in Gikwerere (2005, p.8), says that «Communicative competence is used to
refer to the knowledge of sociolinguistic rules, or the appropriateness of an
utterance, in addition to knowledge of grammar rules».
Littlewood (1981) provides four broad domains of skill which
make up a person's communicative competence, and which must be recognised in
foreign language teaching. These skills are presented from the speaker's
perspectives as follows:
- The learner must attain as high a degree as possible of
linguistic competence
- The learner must distinguish between the forms that he has
mastered as part of his linguistic competence and the communicative functions
that they perform.
- The learner must develop skills and strategies for using
language to communicate meanings as effectively as possible in concrete
situations.
- The learner must become aware of social meaning of language
forms.
Munby (1978, p.11) says, «Above all, communicative
competence relates an ideal speech situation in the same way that linguistic
competence relates to the abstract system of linguistic rules». Therefore,
he defines the communicative competence as «The ideal speaker's mastery of
the dialogue-constitutive universals, irrespective of the actual restrictions
under empirical conditions». (op cit., p.11)
In a nutshell, the communicative competence refers to the
speaker or a writer's choice of the language to use according to the social,
spatial, and chronological environment in which he is. Therefore, Revell (1979,
p.5) says that «Theories of communicative competence imply that teachers
must do more than just supply learners with a number of language structures to
manipulate». Therefore, Rivers (1972, p.72) says, «Teachers must
demonstrate how language items are used, and in what situations they are
appropriate».
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