CONTENTS

DEDICATE 33

FOREWORD. 44

INITIALS AND ABBREVIATIONS 55

TABLES AND FIGURES. 55

0. INTRODUCTION 66

0.1. METHODOLOGY. 1010

0.2. PLAN OF WORK. 1111

BIBLIOGRAPHY RELATING TO THE INTRODUCTION. 1212

FIRST PART (I): 1313

VESSELS OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION OF FOOTBALL. 1313

I.A. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT «INTERNATIONALIZATION». 1414

I.B. ORIGINS OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONLISATION OF THE SPORT. 1515

I.B.1. Irreducible push of universalization 15

I.B.2. The revolution of the CIO 16

I.B.3. The contribution of commercial television. 16

I.B.4. Interest of the sport to the eyes of the multinational corporations. 17

CHAPTER 1. OPERATIONS SUITABLE FOR FOOTBALL. 1919

SECTION 1. THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER OF THE PLAYERS. 1919

Paragraph 1. Definition of the transfer. 22

1.2. The Transfer of the players in African football. 24

1.3. Football business : emptied Africa of its best elements. 25

1.4. Football business : Africa victim of its material poverty. 26

1.5.a. Transfer : Source of provisioning of the raw material clubs. 27

1.5.b. Comments. 30

Paragraph 2 : The market of purchase and sale of the players : mercato. 40

2.1. Definition of the mercato. 40

2.2. Transfer of the players : future prospects 42

SECTION 2. THE MULTINATIONALISATION OF FOOTBALL BUSINESS : 4949

ESTABLISHMENT ABROAD 4949

Paragraph 1. The presence of the clubs of football abroad. 50

1. A. PRESENCE ABROAD WITHOUT INVESTMENT. 5151

1.A.1. The commissioned Agent or the semi-official recruiter. 51

1.A.2. The Agent laid off of the FIFA. 57

1.B. PRESENCE ABROAD WITH INVESTMENT. 5959

1.B.1. The creation of the centers of formation for young players : 59

confrontation enters the humanitarian and the business. 59

1.B.2. The Paris-Saint-Germain and the Planet Champions International of 60

Ouagadougou. 60

Paragraph 2. Projects of foreign direct investment. 64

2. A. THE PARTICIPATION OF AJAX IN GERMINAL BEERSCHOT ANTWERPEN (GBA). 6565

2.A.1. Percentage of 10%. 65

2.A.2. The implication in the management of the foreign club. 65

2.B. AJAX OF AMSTERDAM AND AJAX CAPE TOWN. 6666

SECTION 2. THE PRICE OF TRANSFER IN THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE 6868

BETWEEN THE CLUBS OF FOOTBALL OF THE SAME GROUP. 6868

Paragraph 1. Definition and assumption of application. 68

Paragraph 2. The resolution of the question of the price of transfer in this sector. 69

CHAPTER II. INDUCED OPERATIONS. 7070

SECTION 1. RIGHTS OF RETRANSMISSION : THE BASKET OF THE CENTURY 7070

Paragraph 1. Definition of the rights of retransmission. 70

Paragraph 2. Short historical background. 71

Paragraph 3. Rights of retransmission and conquest of the sporting events 72

international. 72

SECTION 2. MERCHANDIZING. 7575

Paragraph 1. Definition 76

Paragraph 2. Merchandizing like one of the consequences 77

internationalization of football. 77

SECOND PART (II). INTERNATIONALIZATION OF FOOTBALL : 7878

STAKES AND OUTLINES. 7878

CHAPTER I : IMPACT OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION OF 7878

FOOTBALL ON THE COUNTRIES DEVELOP. 7878

SECTION 1. THE QUOTATION OF THE CLUBS OUT OF PURSE. 8080

Paragraph 1. carried 80

Paragraph 2. Evolution of the football dimensioned out of purse. 81

SECTION 2. THE REVELATION OF THE DERIVATIVES COMMERCIAL OF THE TRANSFER. 8282

SECTION 3. OTHER IMPACTS TO BE ANNOUNCED. 8282

Paragraph 1. The industry of the sport. 82

Paragraph 2. Internationalization of football and investment. 82

Paragraph 1. The African player, raw material of high quality. 85

Paragraph 2. Need for adapting the legislation governing football. 86

SECTION 2. IMPACT OF ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION 8787

FOOTBALL ON THE CLUBS OF THE CONTINENT. 8787

Paragraph 1. On the level of the management of the clubs : fonctionnalisation of the practice of football. 87

Paragraph 2. Imitation of the model of financing of the European clubs of football. 88

2.1. Experiment of the Merchandizing by the three large Congolese clubs of Kinshasa : HAVE Vita Club, cd. Motema Pembe and HAVE Dragons. 88

CONCLUSION. 9191

Ø Similarity of the objectives. 92

Ø Advantages of the multinational corporations. 92

Ø Seek contents of the aforesaid advantages for the clubs of football. 93

DEDICATE

With ENDA, my well loved and homonymous daughter of my grandmother;

With my paternal and indéfectible affection is added, each moment of my life, since your birth, the legitimate pleasure to know you lucid, coherent and unquestionably intelligent: « Aperi laborem patris » and, enter the circle of large.

With you to see as much as thinking of you, flashes back as automatically as continuously in me the sincere one and responsible duty to offer all the best spectacle of the life to you who will inspire with you and with hold clean, courage, perseverance and firm hope, reward deserved of ceaseless and useful efforts,

In Kadzula Florentine O' ntor' a-baa, my mother

Brave man and clever educational; never my deep being the wonders of your tender benefits will be erased. To point out to you the sounded hour of the harvest of the fruits of your sacrifices, without which the man that I became should ever have been it,

With Olem Michele, my dear wife,

Faithful, impassively has patience, adviser, infallible support and first admiror of my efforts; here, I testify all the originality to my love and, like always, the constancy of his fidelity to you. As a sign of gratitude,

With you all my sisters and brothers, nieces and nephews, cousins and cousins, aunts and uncles, grandmother, great-aunts and great-uncles, for your expensive and solid affection,

I DEDICATE EC MEMORY.

FOREWORD.

The end of the drafting of this essay offers the obvious and definitely unavoidable occasion to me to thank for any heart all the people without whom nothing like it could not have been done at the good time. I think initially of the Council Inter-Academic General Fleming-Directorate of the International Co-operation, VL.I.R, author of the grant. I formulate the burning and sincere wish to see this mark co-operation to even continue and relight always and higher the flame of the scientific, at one time historical relations between Belgium and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Then, comes Prof Dr. D. Van Den Bulcke, promoter of the report. I was deeply moved by enthusiasm and the intellectual opening by his modest person. Even taken by its many tasks, as well academic as administrative, it was not concealed with this other mission, that to discuss the subject, to suggest the orientation of it and to even provide documentation of it. That it condescends to find here, the expression of my total gratitude. Lastly, I offer a special palm to Prof Dr. Késenne Stefan, UFSIA and KUL, Co-promoter of the report. The promptitude with which it agreed to sponsor my research, in a field where it was particularly distinguished, extremely agreeably touched me. Already very occupied by its time volume, it nevertheless was shown well devoted to reading, and making quite relevant remarks, to provide the bibliography and to even cause in me the desire for not never again dropping on my road of research, the field of the sport, in its two aspects of management and legal. I know liking sincerely of it to him.

In addition, I thank all the professors for the University of Antwerp, especially those of the Institute of Policy and Management of the Development. They reconciled in me unpleasing language formerly the «and refractory» of the economy, but of which I will regret neither knowledge nor the utility, with my training and my experiment of lawyer. In Greet Annaert and Nicole S., I express all my recognition for their spontaneous direction of obligingness.

In the same way, I thank on the one hand, all the professors and my Assistants colleagues of the Faculty of Law to the University of Kinshasa, my alma to subdue, for their support and encouragement which do not pass unperceived, and on the other hand my enseigants of College LANKWAN of Idiofa, of which I will carry high and far the standard. Here and there, I thank very affectionately, Profs. Drs Léopold MAKOKO MOYENGO (Polytechnic/Unikin), Roger BLANPAIN, Godelieve CRAENEN, Frans VANISTENDAEL (Right/KUL),

Abbot Jean Pierre SIEME (Theology/Rome), Greg BAKANDEJA wa MPUNGU (Right/Unikin), Léonard MASHAKO MAMBA (Medicine/Unikin), then Drs Jean Macaire MUNZELE (Sociology) and barristers president MATADI NENGA (Right) for all the friendship and expressions of sympathy testified to me. It is the same for the families Luc and Gertrude TIMMERMANS, Adam MAZINGA and OKWALA.

With my friends of always and also with the colleagues whom the circumstances of studies made me meet out of hospital ground of Antwerp, a true friendship forgets neither the benefits nor the wise councils and reproaches. You, I benefit constantly. Can this international friendship remain with all vaguenesses of the remainder of time of our active life.

I particularly think of you MIKOMO L., LALONG Mr., ANEM P., EFUR R., NGYELE P., SHAMAVU A., KWILU Mr., MBUNGU Mr., NGOMA D., LUKANDA B., HUARACHI J., NCHWEKI P., CUVELIER J., DAEMEN I., DIAKO S., TSHIMANGA Cl., KOLOKO L., AZOR Mr. J, YAGUNDU F, ANUCHA, BAKOYE S., MASUMU J., KOFFI Mariette, BARO H, ALEMAN B.P and MEGOUO B.

INITIALS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CIF : African confederation of football.

CIO : Olympic International committee.

CONCACAF : Confederation of Football Association of North America and the Center.

FECOFA : Congolese federation of Football Association.

FIFA : International federation of Football Association.

UEFA : Union of European Associations of Football.

UNPF : National union of the Professionals of Football.

URBSFA : Belgian Royal union of the Companies of Football Association.

TABLES AND FIGURES.

Table I : Footballers in the world ....................................................... P. 28.

Table II : Professional footballers in the world .................................... p. 28.

Table III : European clubs richest ................................................ P. 29.

Table IV : The 15 rich person clubs of Europe ....................................................... P. 30.

Table V : Highlights of the transfers in Belgium (season 2000-2001) ............. Pp.32-37.

Table VI : Wages of the players of First League English of football ................... P. 47.

Table VII : Ten larger transfers of the history of football business ................ p. 48.

Table VIII. List partial of the negotiators of the transfers of the Congolese players ......... p. 55.

Table IX : Rights of retransmission of nine editions of Mundial ........................ ... p.75.

0. INTRODUCTION

The multinational firms, to which was always allotted, wrongly or rightly, the capacity to prolong the exploitation of their activities abroad, are not any more, unfortunately, the only economic actors with affectionner the epithet of international. In other words, they are not any more the only ones with being able to draw advantage from widening of the markets, nor to butt itself with the obstacles, always so inherent in universalization. Machine of collusion and centering of the interests between several actors, universalization, like points out it the economist Nigerian, OKIGBO P. (1999, pp. 101-102), is obviously, a process which plunges its roots in the oldest times. One should not regret to quarter the conquests of César, through his many combat, at the same time glorious and sometimes terns, in research what the world would bring closer, to start with European space. César thus traced the stakes of what the economists of the néo-liberal school were going to exploit and conclude, namely, universalization. The sport, especially, «the professional sport does not escape the movement from globalisation and universalization which touches the economic world », BAYLE Emmanuel and DURAND Christophe (2000, p.154) write. Much more, Jean Jacques GOUGUET (2000, p.5) informs, even if « the sports activity acquired long date an international dimension (the Olympic Games for example), but the new forms of universalization are spirit to radically upset the methods of organization of the sporting spectacle », especially the marriage multinational sport-companies.

In fact, the relations between the multinational firms and the sport, often discrete, but always present, are not only old. BOROUGH and GOUGUET (2000), speak about one « interaction enters of the multinational firms, a side, and the sporting movement, other ». They were also tightened of more beautiful, lately, at the point to transform the universe of spectacle into a world of businesses, quite as prosperous as profitable. To qualify this effort of conversion of the spectacle into business, the expression «metamorphosis » is not exaggerated at all.

It is true that certain multinational corporations were made a name in the manufacture and the marketing of the sporting equipment, and this, through planet : ADIDAS, NIKE, REEBOOK, to quote only they, for those which passes had known to exploit since, and in time, the ring of weddings, still virgin, between sport and business.

Currently, at the sides of this category, several others try out and consolidate their opening in the commercial universe. Because, this last ended up haunting, without much effort of resistance of their share, the clubs and federations sporting, and to be right of them, following the example irresistible gravity, pitiless opposite any object on the surface. How not to pay attention to this evolution, when, as ANDREFF Wladimir (2000) indicates it, «quotation of the clubs out of purse, transformation of the legal structures of the professional clubs into trade undertakings, opening of the capital of the clubs to the operators external with the sport, diversification of the products of the clubs (merchandizing) and privatization of the financing of the clubs » are very used by the sporting mediums !

The sport, thus, ceased being the exclusive eraser, which it was since then, of the ludic and spectacular thirst for the athletes on the one hand, and of the spectators on the other hand. While waiting to find a cause with this reversal, one thinks already that the entry of private in the sporting movement and the financial revenues that it would be able to generate are not foreign with the metamorphosis of football spectacle in football business. BAYLE and DURAND (Ibidem), above mentioned, increase that «this tendency to the privatization of the professional sport, that it is accompanied by a formal takeover or a pressure such that it confers on the operator external a very broad control of the system, constitutes an element of the organization and financing of the professional sport ».

It is thus, to the point, which analyzing the phenomenon lucidly, BOROUGH (1998) draft that « the sport became the object of considerable financial stakes binding four major actors to an international level : sponsors, diffusers, manufacturers, agencies of marketing ».

The years '80 of last century are decisive in the way in which the sport, in general and football, in particular will behave. Football, will continue to lean on its principles, while being cleared, at the same time, the lucrative way, hardly, him ascribable.

But, speech of the sport is a subject, certainly, attractive, only which are likely to appear too broad and too vagueness in end of the accounts. There is a whole arsenal of sporting disciplines, for which it will be necessary for long, to devote the many ones and rich studies. However, within the framework of this analysis, we limit ourselves to football, the strategies of its internationalization and so that this one could be capable to bring to the development developing countries of Africa, them which seem to constitute one of the most snuffed routes operations of internationalization of the sport under examination. Some reasons chair this choice thus.

First of all, football remains one of the most popular sports and most spectacular in the world. Then, even in countries where its significance was reduced to the simple spectacle of the districts less attended by certain social classes, in the United States for example, it acquires width more and more. The course of the final phase of the world 1994 out of American ground is only one of the eloquent signs.

Lastly, the infiltration of the private mediums of businesses impregnates an at the same time social and économico-financial dimension to him considerable. Its authorities take care daily of the expansion of its practice, without too much revealing the financial aspect which sticks to him certainly and obviously with the skin. The choice of Japan and South Korea, to which could join the North Korea would be a step towards « ground  promised businesses of the 21st century », namely, popular China.

The proof is given by the hyper-mediatization of which it is the object and the detailed attention which is given to him on behalf of the authorities as well as on behalf of the populations. Indeed, the least possible report which can still strike made state of than since the years '80, football became a socio-economic and financial phenomenon indisputable, to which studies are devoted more and more. This tendency towards an industrial research to football is however not yet proportional to the media promotion from which it profits.

Television, for example, draws each day contours of its idylles with the sport, and football in particular. Captivating the breath of the televiewers, increasingly many, it évertue with length of the days, to drive out, then to deliver to the public, on hours of massive audience, images and subjects of current events of football : results of the national championships, the matches of the leagues, the matches of qualification for international competitions, the movement of the transfers of the players and the chronicle of their amounts, the hooliganism and also the doping of some.

At first sight, the specialization on the matter of certain private chains of television left indifferent even impassioned football, without in light the vast trade appearing which proceeded there. Going back to several years in the United States, this trade had succeeded in proving its prowesses. QUIRK J. and STRONG R.D, which quote Bayle and Durand (2000, p. 152) also showed that «the slip of the historical property of associations (sporting) worms of the private operators is a perceptible tendency in Europe which has, contrary, always preceded in the United States «.

Today, the passion which endiablait the fans of football formerly overflowed this more and more narrowed and caricatural context, for pavoiser and to reach the policies, the financial ones and the industrialists of this world.

Admittedly, the sport forms integral part of the company, even if its evolution of these last years gives the impression to remove its social role to him, to recognize of it to him only that of economic policy and financial.

In more than one way, it is acquired, as ILLKA Vuori write it et al., (1995, p. 15), that « the sport can be directly a factor of social wellbeing by getting leisures, by improving the physical form and by supporting insertion of the individuals in the company and their maintenance in good health. In addition, the economic dash that the sport brings contributes to consumption, the income, employment and the development economic local, regional ", why not continental ! That being, fear that the infestation of the medium of the businesses in the sport, without possibility of saving the ethical face «does not result in a loss of the sovereignty of the sporting capacity » (Borough and Gouguet, 2000), does not seem less alarming.

If the transformations of football delight as far as they worry about other continents, like Europe, less should be isolated for they analyzes in the African context. This continent has such a delay of development of its inhabitants whom it has, with respect to the generations to come, a true challenge to be launched. (KAMANDA wa KAMADA, 1976). Football, one of the banal elements, could, without really having row of panacea, contributing to its manner with the raising of this challenge, because, otherwise would amount wondering with Axelle KABOU (1991) «if Africa refused the development », would be only on this aspect. Even if, elsewhere, the efforts to be undertaken are enormous, development of great economic projects, with the proof that Africa does not cease giving on its performances, as regards football, it is necessary to believe, truly, with a dimension of «the anti-drift of Africa in distress » (NDESHYIO Oswald et al., 1985).

The subject thus interests the developing countries, especially those of Africa which abound in thousands and thousands of young people, without work but kneaded talent in the football, which, of the remainder, could only, to offer to them the prospects for a dignity and a life full with direction and vitality.

In fact, speaking about Africa, Mr. KOFFI Annan (1998, p. 26) noted that although « all the countries belong from now on to an international commercial system ... a number of them are badly integrated there and others remain too vulnerable vis-a-vis its instability. In Africa, the maintenance of a sustained high growth in the long run will depend to a large extent on the capacity which their exports will have the countries to diversify ». As football, like all the sports, can be entered and to be the subject of calculation in the trade balance of the States, it deserves all the attention of the political and economic leaders to channel it, as all the economic activity which results from it, towards this diversification.

« Africa with is crossroads, observed Alassane OUATTARA (1999, p. 2), but it must be integrated fully into the universal village which... it became our planet must also redouble efforts to accelerate the growth by stimulating the investment deprived by a larger opening of the markets and trade ».

The private investment presents, in Africa, a discussed assessment. To crescendo begin with the reduction flows at one time reserved to him, particularly « the low level of flows of the direct foreign investments towards Africa » (UNCTAD, 1998, p. 11). It has, in the sectors tanker and mining, often considered as source of the civil conflicts and impoverishment of the local populations. The charges by the movement for the survival of the people Ogoni (MOSOP) against Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria or those formulated by the populations of the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of Congo, respectively against Rafter-GULF-oil company, Elf and the American multinationals are kind to attest the meaning. The Democratic Republic of Congo undergoes an atrocious war which returns it simply victim of its mining richnesses.

It is not obvious to however conclude thus with the private investment, already possible and perceptible in the world of football. It is one of the rare fields where the Africans do not see themselves closing the way from abroad as workers. Football runs a little the counter to what  « the developed countries often closed their markets with the competitive African products. » (KOFFI Annan, 1998, p. 26).

Since our study would like to fit in the right wire of the optimistic arguments, it proves to be relevant to wonder whether that does not appear illusory, as long as the macro-economic indicators especially at the era of the globalisation, in particular on the African continent are not the good one forecasts : « 85% of the world trade are done in the triad : European union, the United States and Japan. The share of Africa east in lower part from the 4% and forever be also low. » (Isabelle PLUVINAGE, 1999, p. 9). It is much more amusing to see the things differently.

0.1. METHODOLOGY.

Social sciences do not have methods which are obligatory, if one wanted to carry out such or such other study. « The working method will never arise as a simple addition of techniques which it would be a question of applying just as they are but well like a total step of the spirit which requires to be reinvented for each work. » Thus, in the field of research in social sciences, « the devices of investigation vary considerably from one research to another ». (QUIVY Raymond and CAMPENHOUDT Luc Van, 1988, pp. 3-5). That being, it goes without saying that ours, presents, falls under the diagram of the analytical reasoning of a new phenomenon, namely economic internationalization of football business. We will endeavor to describe the fact and to compare it with the step multinational corporations.

0.2. PLAN OF WORK.

The present study is devoted to the fact that the sport, and football, especially continuous to be sold and to be established in commercial structures, beyond the borders of the agents which are the principal actors. Not only that the private ones make use of it as a support to make profitable their investments, but also, the clubs of football and the related federations y themselves entered in scene while becoming these investors who they were not a few times ago.

The causes of this contagion of mercantile are multiple, and are the object, currently several forums of reflection. However, we claim by no means to exhaust a topic still virgin and sometimes difficult to clear, fault of literature available and data reliable. For this reason, the majority of the references are the extracts of the specialized newspapers of the sport and the subjects of the articles written on the sport.

The first part is harnessed with the strategies or channels of internationalization. Here, will be approached in turn, but in the form of chapters, the operations suitable for the movement football (Chapter 1) in particular the transfer of the players of football (section 1), the creation of the centers of formation abroad (section 2), the foreign direct investment (section 3), and the induced operations (Chapter 2), namely the rights of retransmission (section 1), the merchandizing (section 2).

The second part, as for it, will examine the impact of this internationalization, initially on the countries in which the rich clubs in football are originating (chapter 1), then on the development of the developing countries, considered as partners impossible to circumvent of the phenomenon. This incidence will be analyzed first of all on the level of the local clubs (section 1), of the players (section 2) and the country (section 3.)

Lastly, in the conclusion, we will suggest the catch of certain measures likely to correct the commercial drifts of the internationalization of football.

BIBLIOGRAPHY RELATING TO the INTRODUCTION.

ANDREFF Wladimir (2000), finances of the sport and sporting ethics,

in Review of financial economy.

BAYLE E., DURAND C., (2000), professional Sport and national representation : Which future ? , in Reflections and perspective of the economic life, Divides into volumes XXXIX-2000, n°2-3

BOROUGH (1998), Sports business and rules of the game, in Sociétal, n° 20, June. BOROUGH and GOUGUET, (2000), Economy of the sport, Paris, the Discovery.

UNCTAD (1998), Commission Report of the investment, technology

and of the related financial questions about its third session, Geneva, September 14-18, 1998.

GOUGUET J-J, (2000), introduction in Reflections and perspective of the economic life, sport

and universalization. Which stake for the 21st century ? , Volume XXXIX-2000, n°2-3)

ILLKA Vuori et al., (1995), the role of the sport in the company : health, socialization, economy.

Report published by the editions of the Council of Europe for the 8èmeconférence of the European Ministers responsible for the sport [Lisbon, May 17-18, 1995], in economic Problems, n°2.503 of January 15, 1997.

KAMANDA wa KAMADA (1976), the African challenge, a power which is unaware of, Paris, Africa Biblio Club, 201 p.

KABOU Axelle (1991), And if Africa refused the development, Paris, Harmattan, 207 p.

NDESHYIO O. et al., (1985), anti-drift of Africa in distress, Kinshasa, University Presses of Zaire. 

KOFFI Annan (1998), Report/ratio of the Secretary General of the United Nations on the activity of the organization : «causes of the conflicts and the promotion of a peace and a durable development in Africa», April 13, 1998.

OKIGBO Pius, (1999), the project of universalization and development of the international financial organizations, a challenge for sub-Saharan Africa in Southern Alternatives, Flight. VI, n° 2.OUATTARA Alassane (1999), Africa, an action plan for the 21st century in Finances and Development, vol. 36, n° 1, p. 2, the IMF, Washington D.C.

PLUVINAGE Isabelle (1999), the song of the swan, in the Third World needs it Volunteers ? Work collective, Brussels, ED. Colophon.

FIRST PART (I):

VESSELS OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION OF FOOTBALL.

Nobody knows exactly the extent of the trade of the sport, not more than that of all the trade carried out by and for football. But, one can learn from Monti Mario, European Commissaire in load of Competition, in his speech of April 17, 2000, that «the competing policy feels concerned because the sport and the business which is referred to it are from now on a great business... the growth in the economic dimension of the sport these last years, note it, are spectacular. Two million employment directly or was indirectly created by the industry of the sports. It is an excellent development. »

Under a style admiror, not deprived of concerns, it gives a report on what «surprising, the value of the rights of retransmission reached this increase, the right following the example of of retransmission of the Olympic Games of Sydney sold for a billion three hundred million American dollars, that is to say five times plus the price for the rights of retransmission of the Olympic Games of Los Angeles ». Lastly, it announces what: « I was very interested to read in the newspapers details off has revised three-year deal being offered by English First League, and that this was being seen have worth have much have pound billion in total, partly reflecting the new Internet possibilities. » MONTI Mario (2000).

However, more and more, some studies considering the field bring back figures. Borough J.F (1998, p. 29), estimates that «the sport accounts for 1 to 1,5% of the GDP in the developed countries and 2,5% of the world trade. At the scale of planet, its sales turnover is estimated at 2.500 billion French francs ». By stirring up the figures and the comments relating to it, it is released that the commercial and financial transactions around the sport, and thus of football, generate enormous money flows which it would not be interesting to underestimate a priori. The money of the sport proceeds in particular of a series of activities which are summarized in clear terms in the creation of jobs, payments of the wages raised with the players of football, in exorbitant costs of the rights of retransmission TV and radio, in patronages, etc Ainsi, one can distinguish four types of activities which, attached to football, make a real business of them and accompany internationalization by it. It is about the transfer of the players, of the creation of the centers of formation for young players, and of the acquisition of a holding in the capital of certain clubs on the one hand, and of the sale of the rights of retransmission TV, the sponsoring and the production of the sporting equipment or not to the colors of the clubs, on the other hand. However, remains, outstanding, the question of knowing what it is necessary to understand by internationalization of football.

I.A. DEFINITION OF the CONCEPT «INTERNATIONALIZATION».

Internationalization is indifferently used to mean globalisation or multinationalisation. But, in a strict sense, of the nuances appear, which prune confusion of it. In vogue, lately, « the globalisation, as well as the precise MUCCHIELLI (1998, p. 97), can mean in a way similar to universalization. In this direction, it increases, the firm regards the world market as only one and even gone

(Launching of product simultaneously on the three large continents : America Asia Europe), whose integration would be particularly thorough. » This logic meets that of OECD (1993, p. 7), for which « the globalisation can then be defined as  the widening and the deepening of the activities of the companies aiming producing and at selling goods and services on a greater number of markets ». This definition joined that which GROU Pierre (1997, p. 116) gives which, on its side, understands by « multinationalisation of a company or sometimes internationalization the fact that it installed at least a subsidiary company of production apart from its own territory of origin ». In the same way, one can note with EDGARD P. HIBBERT (1997, p. 34), that « the process of internationalization, described the sequence in which a company of a national organization evolves/moves, serving a relatively homogeneous local market, to become an active exporter, and consequently an international corporation serving a great number of multinational and cultural markets various. ». Lastly, SKLAIR Leslie

(2000, p. 344) supplements that « the globalisation is a relatively new idea in sociology, although in other disciplines like the international businesses and the international relations, it means the same thing... The theory of the total system is based on the concept of transnational, practical practices which cross the borders of the States ». But, this market, we said it to the beginning, always does not move away from the sport. The markets of the sport were mondialisés and gradually integrated. They are internationalized, in this direction that, basing on asset of pushed economy world, sport there discovers elements which ensures to him an expansion beyond the borders of the States, which worse is, far from the yoke of its object of antan. Thus, the economic internationalization of the sport can be conceived in a more general angle like the process by which the sports activities continuing of the commercial objectives, overflow of the national borders of the States of the clubs which carry out them and take place abroad or in connection with the foreigner. It proves already alarming to specify that the multinationalisation of the activities of the clubs fits only less in the diagram of the production of the tangible properties that in that of the services. The thesis according to which « the services were looked like amorphous, unproductive, as an industrial system whose value was not completely included in the GNP of much country or in the statistics trade of the majority of the countries until in the years 1970, » having been fought, the results of work and research admire since the years 1980, that « theoretically, the trade of the services gets with some exceptions, the same rights of comparative advantage and the same profits as those coming from the trade of the goods ».(DUNKLEY G., 2000, PP.177-175). Thus for example, the fact that a team of football commits itself training young players in a foreign country or that it takes part in the capital of another local team would not lend to the idea of an activity of production of goods, but well rather of the services.

I.B. ORIGINS OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONLISATION OF THE SPORT.

Nature envoûtante of the modern economy, founded on the globalisation did not leave any chance to the sports to develop from now on far from its influence. Quite to the contrary, it seems to in general constitute one of the principal causes of the internationalization of the sport, and football in particular. Speaking about the origin about the industrial multinationailsation, GROU P. (ibidem) pointed out that : « a size more important of capital to develop order a space of broader sale. From this report, national spaces of the industrialized countries, particularly European national spaces, became too narrow. The firms may find it beneficial to delocalize themselves in other industrialized countries, and the phenomenon of multinationalisation gradually became the rule », from which, the sport, for its part, could not escape. Enticed by the odor of the money - even if Vespasien, one of the twelve Césars of the Roman Empire thinks of it the opposite, the sporting institutions had to refit the rules of the game. The pressure that they underwent proceeds of universalization, of the invasion of the sport by commercial television and the role of incentive which the tycoons of the multinational corporations play in the sporting movement.

I.B.1. Irreducible push of universalization

While referring with what is marked Ci high, it is noted that the sport knew a deep metamorphosis which revêt three characteristics : the universalization of the images, the marketing of the spectacles, the professionalisation of the athletes. Here are which makes note BOROUGH (1998, p. 29 that « everywhere, indeed, in this end of century, the sport occupies a central place in the imaginary collective. Everywhere also, the market economy is essential like the new fashion of regulation of a practice initially founded on a esthetism, an education and a morals ". The consequences are also calculated by the FIFA and the CIO, author of a great revolution.

I.B.2. The revolution of the CIO

This development, quasi unanimous of the sporting movement, on a planetary scale, is allotted to fact qu ` « at the beginning of the Eighties, the Olympic International Committee made two decisions which had a considerable impact on the practice of the sport. On the one hand, the CIO opened the plays with the participation of all the athletes, without making distinction between amateurs and professionals. In addition, it introduced the system of commercial sponsorship of the plays, thus opening the way with a generalized marketing of all the sports activity. » (European Commission, 1998, p.8).

In other words, explains BOROUGH (COp cit., p. 30), « the emergence of a sporting order commercial and mondialized at the beginning of the Eighties results from the disappearance of two institutional bolts which, lasting nearly one century (1896 - 1980), governed the ethics of the Olympic ideal : exemption from payment of the athletic effort, with the end of amateurism in 1981 on the one hand, impossibility of exploiting the symbols of the OJ commercially, removed in 1986, on the other hand. In addition, the passage of a local sale (negotiation with each of the 197 Olympic national committees) to a world sale (overall agreement of sponsorship with the CIO) opened the whole of the markets to the sponsors by simplifying the negociations. This decompartmentalization contributes to the integration of the national economies in a world logic «, where commercial television (private) appears like an essential partner in all the cycle of the sporting product.

I.B.3. The contribution of commercial television.

Quasi inexhaustible layer of images, feelings and emotions, the sport developed its relationships to television, allowing an increasingly broad diffusion of the sporting spectacle which corresponds to a keen demand of the televiewers. « This progression, slips CHABAY Olivier (1999, p. 10), comes not from the increase in the time devoted to the sport by the large existing hertzian chains, but by the arrival of new chains which devote to him on their grids of program either a more significant part (in the case of Canal +), or integrality for the chains sets of themes (Eurosport) ». The questions relating to the relationship between the sport and television became crucial. A detailed attention since is given there. (Johnson, 1986, pp. 38-80), (Kinkema K. and Harris J, 1998, pp. 27-56), (Silk Mr. L & Friendly J, 2000, pp.267-292).

« Television, being also given the importance of the commercial communications in the sporting field, represents the first source of financing of the professional sport in Europe » (UFA Fussball Studie 1998, Hamburg). An event without television is likely to disappear, the presence of the television ensuring of the receipts by the way of the sponsors and publicity. It gives to the event a universal dimension and the characteristics of the spectacle offer a world of membership, identity and myths.

Based on the logic of the conquest of audience and sales turnover, the globalisation integrates the sport in its strategy of cultural conquest of new territories. Coke helps Chinese football with professionnaliser, Nike ensures itself of the promotion of the tennis shoe in India and Marlboro formula I in Russia.

Undoubtedly, the actuation of this universalization comes from the role more and more crescent of television in this sector. Television transformed the stage into a total village. The exploits of the footballers at the time of or the finale World cup of the continental or Olympic cuts are followed everywhere in the world. With the awaited scores of audience, 37 billion televiewers, the sport becomes a vector of communication for the companies wishing to improve their image, to consolidate their international establishment and to obtain new outlets.

In their collective work, BOROUGH and GOUGUET (1998, p. 260) even think that « the professional sport, without the rights poured by televisions, would be condemned to the deficit. » That translated the strong dependence of the professional sports in comparison with television.

But, in all the cases, the interest which the sport with the eyes of the multinational corporations represents makes irrevocably realizable the economic internationalization of the sport.

I.B.4. Interest of the sport to the eyes of the multinational corporations.

With some exceptions, the relations between the sporting world and the mediums of businessmen are very old. BAYLE and DURAND (2000, p. 150) there see a species rather of « cohabitation of competitions organized by private operators and the emergence of national and international historical federations having in load certain great competitions (national, continental or world championships) ».

In Europe particularly, football constitutes a privileged ground of investment for many multinationals. However, those, as their name indicates it, were demolished only compared to the foreign territories.

Thus, FIAT is since the end of the XIXème century owner of the Italian club of Juventus of Turin, the chemical group Bayer since 1904 of the German club of Bayer Leverkusen, Peugeot governs the destinies of the club of football of Sochaux, Philips is owner of PSV Eindhoven, Amstrad takes care of Tottenham, International Management Group de Benfica of Lisbon, Canal Plus of Paris-Saint-Germain and the Swiss club of Servette.

In the United States, the principal groups of communication misent on the baseball : Disney (California Angels), Time Warner (Atlanta Face), Tribune Company (Chicago Cubs), News Corporation (Los Angeles Dodgers). And the continuation is still long. Through, this illustration, one can note indeed that the investments carried out by the companies in the sporting world are neither altruistic what does not characterize a businessman, nor philanthropic. The sport, across its specificity, is seen very indicated to offer the well proven role of advertizing medium, a kind of market to be developed, a product of call or diversification, even a financial investment. The multinational corporations are undoubtedly devancières on the vast operation of conquest of the international market. They are always with the search of all that could reinforce to them capacity economic and financial. The sport seems to join together the asset. It makes it possible to make discover the so many company and its range of the productions to the public in front of television. However, instead of being made advertisers simply, the majority deal with teams of football, as sponsors or adapt themselves some.

Consequently, vis-a-vis the acceleration of the financial appetite of the clubs and the federations sportsmen, those of football at the head, the road towards internationalization seems to pass for the least bad from the solutions. But being the clubs of football, let us announce that they resort to several operations, of which more in sight is the transfer of the players of a national association towards another. With the creation of the centers of formation for young players, the strategy even of foreign direct investment, the transfer inaugurates the series of operations suitable for football.

Chapter 1. OPERATIONS SUITABLE FOR FOOTBALL.

The clean operations concern, contrary to the induced operations which are the consequence of the economic development of the practice of football, the whole of activities mentioned below which are carried out for the survival and of the profitability of the sport. They are such, because they are the direct work of the leaders of football and dictations of the kind by sporting logic.

Section 1. THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSFER OF THE PLAYERS.

If football wants to be a sporting discipline, the transfer, in constituted with the length of the ages the commercial branch to him which gives the character of business today to him. It became about it the spearhead of internationalization. In fact, considered already by the European Court of justice an economic activity, and thus in front of subjecting itself to the application of the legal provisions posed by the treaty constitutive of what became the European Union (Businesses 36/74 Walrave against UCI, in Rec. 1974, p. 1405 ; Business 13/76 Donà counters Mantero, Rec. 1976, p. 1333 ; Business 222/86 Heylens counters Unctef, Rec. 1987, p. 4097 and the C-415 business/93 known as Bosman of December 15, 1995), the sport, and leaving football, can integrate all the economic laws for the increase in the profit and success. The particular case of football is rather eloquent. It knew to set up a system of transfer which, although prone to controversies lately, always succeeded to him. The President of the FIFA, Mr. Sepp Blatter it did not recognize it on several occasions, in reaction to the European Commission proposals tending to make completely reform the operation of this system currently in force, considered to be contrary with the provisions of European Community legislation.(http://fr.sports. Yahoo.com/000901/1/mblz.html).

The transfer is, today, an inexhaustible topic of discussions and reflection. That one speaks about international, continental federations or main roads of car, basic-ball, from tennis shoe, cycling, football, hockey, ski or other sports of this scale, that it is a question of the system of marketing of the leagues of football and or the sporting clubs in general, of the financial power of the sporting teams or certain sportsmen, individually, one of certain daily newspapers relaying with length of the days the sporting events or the tearing files the clubs, from fusions and acquisitions in the sporting world, unceasingly returns the question of transfer of the players. It is not there a simple question of mode.

The problems arising from the existence and the operation of the system of transfer of the players of football are the occasion, lately, of debates, often rough and quite relevant. In fact, the European Commission considers the system in force of the allowances, more and more mirobolantes, of transfer like degrading for the players and inhuman for young people of them, thrown to the street when they do not promise juicy financial appreciations. For the Commission, the footballers must be governed by the common law wanting that a worker in contract at given duration can break it when it wishes it against payment of an allowance equal to the amount of the wages which would remain to him to be perceived at the date of the cancellation. However, vis-a-vis criticisms of the European police chiefs considering scandalous the current practices of football where the players are treated in goods, the President of the FIFA Joseph Sepp Blatter predicted « end of the exorbitant allowances of transfer ». But, the sport profits from a broad support of certain political authorities.

1. 1. The INTERVENTION OF the POLICIES :

Football business always counts on its ally and faithful political circle. In spite of the pressure of the European Union on the authorities of football envue to modify the system of the transfers of the players, those did not lose their old reflex to request the support of the political authorities of the same union. But, the unanimity in the manner of tackling the subject is far from being acquired. Thus beside the support open and declared authorities political German and British, one can also note the remarkable prudence of the French Minister for Youth and Sport.

1.1. a. The DECLARATION OF SUPPORT FOR the SYSTEM OF the TRANSFERS.

And surprising seems to remain the Joint Declaration of the German Chancellor and English the Prime Minister reproduced hereafter : « Professional football enjoys in our two countries a proud tradition. All the clubs are deeply enracinés in their towns of origin, and the inhabitants all are, proud of «their» club. Football causes enthusiasm. The fans are identified with their clubs. We do not want that that changes. The European Commission does not agree with the system of transfer and the methods of the current contracts of employment in remunerated football. From the point of view of freedom of movement for the workers, it considers modifications of this system to which the clubs are opposite. The existing system is certainly not perfect. We fear however that a radical reform has negative effects on the structure of European football. We have concern in particular for the small clubs whose existence is likely to be threatened. This is why we think that it is necessary to find a solution which takes account of the justified interests as well players as of the clubs and the federations. Naturally, our federations of football must submit alternative proposals to the Commission. We are delighted that the Commission granted time necessary to them. We are pleased owing to the fact that the Commission either lends to cooperate with the representatives football to find a solution which can satisfy everyone. We are ready to bring a help in the search for solutions. The clubs need a safety of planning for the promotion of the young footballers and the constitution of their teams. They need a system which guarantees a healthy balance and gives chances equal to all. We hope that the Commission will take account of the particular situation in professional football in the search for a payment of the system of transfer. » (Gerhard Schröder and Tony Blair, Communicated n° 425).

1.1.b. RESERVES CAREFUL OF THE FRENCH.

Pareillement, Mrs Buffet " (2000), French Minister for Youth and the Sports, and president in exercise of the Council of Ministers Europeans of the Sport was careful while deciding at the same time against the status quo and a hasty deregulation of the system of the transfers in football. « I believe, says it, that a status quo in this field (of the transfers) would be unacceptable. I believe very as much as it would be prejudicial to remove the existing system without to have evaluated all the consequences in the sporting plan... I divide of them the aggravation of the Commission as for the indecent amount of certain allowances of transfer. I am convinced that it is necessary to substitute for the current system a mode indemnitee based on an economic and sporting base real. I also believe that it is necessary to protect the minors against abusive commercial transactions ».

All this rhetoric around the transfer informs would be this only partly the stakes of a sector which gives enough breath to the clubs and the sportsmen federations. For us audacity to far solve a question as complex as it does not appear, and where the positive and negative aspects do not predict any, in any case, immediate disappearance. To better interpret the definition of the transfer, one realizes immediately that the system passes for a stage inherent in football. This debate impassions as much as it poisons sometimes the relations between political and sporting authorities. Africa, however more than ever concerned, seems to be voluntarily isolated for it.

1.2. AFRICAN DUMBNESS.

Whereas the topicality on the change or not of the current system of the transfers lately makes the chronicle of the near total of information on football, Africa did not always react. That is all the more surprising that this continent, although equipped with young people

talented, still undergoes enormous discriminations on the level of the cost of the transfer of one of its natives of Africa towards Europe. It is thus time that all these problems make known also the point of view of the black continent.

Paragraph 1. Definition of the transfer.

For better including/understanding than is the transfer of the players of football, we borrow the terminology that the leading authorities of this sport forged some. In the jargon footbalistic, it is at the top of the hierarchy of the discipline that the concept appears. The FIFA (1999) rule, in its article 34 the transfer operation. This article, relating to attributions of the Commission of the statute of the player, lays out that this one has in particular as a mandate to give notice, for the executive Committee, on the interpretation of the statutory and lawful provisions having milked to the qualification, the statute or the transfer of the players. Charter constitutive of the institution of world football, the statutes of the FIFA did not define the transfer, with the turn of which, however, all the dimension of the internationalization of football is conceived.

On the other hand, the payment of the FIFA concerning the statute and the transfers of the players, who poses the principle of transfer without defining it either, have, nevertheless, the merit to brush the framework of the course of this operation and to specify nature of it. It provides that the players can leave their respective national associations to go to play in clubs of football affiliated to other national associations.

But the clear, precise and synthetic definition is proposed to us by the Belgian royal Union of the companies of football association, URBSFA, in its payment y related. According to it, «a transfer is the operation which makes it possible an affected associate to obtain an assignment change or a temporary qualification for another club ».

(Urbsf, 1996, p.1). In this passage of a national association towards another, the international certificate of transfer is the indispensable condition (FIFA, 1997). The acquisition of the players causes expenditure, just like their sale makes return of important sums in the case and the economy of the club. The cost can even be important.

1.1. The cost of the transfer of the players.

By establishing that the transfers, of which it allows the realization all the federations and other associations of football, are economic contracts (Article 5, subparagraph 2, payment), the FIFA thus instituted the commercial nature of the operation. It follows that the faculty which the player of a team affiliated to a national federation of football given has to evolve/move from now on in another team, itself affiliated with another national federation, has financial incidences some, but from which the width comes to know a spectacular rise lately. On this subject, and speaking about the market of French summer of sale and purchase about the players, TELO Laurent (2000) written in the French sporting magazine, the Team that « the course of the player is even higher than last year. The prices become excessive. »

The clubs of football are useful of the transfer to recruit their players. The search for better talents does not save the clubs any corner of the world. The rare species, pure race of ebony are sold at great price. At once, on the gradual rise of the amounts of the transfers, the observers and analysts worry about the phenomenon : « The transfers always existed. But, in the year 2000, a new era opens. That of the higher bid, temptations. » (Thibert Jacques, 2000).

Currently, the word rhyme transfer with «million », as the evocative title of this article indicates it «foot... the return of the cramps and the million » (HENNION Blandine, 2000), so that in spite of the aspect mirobolant or exorbitant allowances which result from this, this operation does not remain less one ankle oiled which makes turn to wonder the principal wheel of any presence abroad of the teams and clubs of football. At the strong time of the lawsuits between Urbsf, the FC Liege and Mr. Bosman, the first underlined on several occasions that the system of transfer was «angular stone of the structure which regulates football » (Blanpain Roger, 1996, p. 17).

That is confirmed each day. No team could, so really it wanted to be professional and competitive, to do some. The entry of the investors in the world of football business made only amplify the capacity of the teams of professional football to obtain better players. A true strategy of acquisition develops within the clubs, even least famous. The latter, them, are used in the majority of the cases to carry out the recruitment of the players and to ensure of it the resale near most professional. They are regarded as ceaseless providers of large clubs of football. However, although gone flourishing, it is worth the sorrow to announce that the transfer is dependant on the degree of development of football ; itself dependant on much on other factors, in particular policy, economic, social and cultural. In Africa, it causes seldom entry, ticketting, the subsidies and the gifts being always the ordinary sources of the receipts of the clubs.

1.2. The Transfer of the players in African football.

The system of transfer is a market structured well by the sporting organizations. It is thus governed by the combination of the regulation of the FIFA and that of each continental confederation which is members.

If, in Africa, payments of the African Confederation of football, CIF, and those of each national federation ensure the regulation of this system, it should not however be forgotten that the market of the transfers is often extraverti and especially carried out by persons in charge for the teams and federations in a fraudulent way, with such sign that the allowances of transfer really do not benefit the teams to which the players thus transferred had belonged.

In Democratic Republic of Congo, the transactions of the illicit transfers, and the following which the State is seriously floué, are frequent and, unfortunately difficult to stop. We want some for proof, this information brought back by the newspaper the Future, daily kinois, relating to the Congolese players, formerly transferred in the Belgian club from Lokeren. «From quite informed source, one learns that three Congolese, in fact MP, JL and PM was presented at the seat of Football Lokeren Club, formation evolving/moving in the first division in Belgium, to try to finalize the transfer of the player Bwayi Kidoda, member of the FC Union Bilombe de Kinshasa, of which they pass for managers. The president of the Belgian club naturally returned three Congolese to regulate their dispute elsewhere, question which they agree before returning to him. One up to that point does not know the name of that which withdrew the money of Bwayi. » (Future of December 09, 1999).

Even if, on the continent, high level football tends to be aligned on the European model dominating, hyper professional, it is initially the most popular sport and more practiced in all Africa.

As in Europe, football is there initially a passion of children and teenagers for the play without constraints, in the laughter and the cries, a way of living and of killing time with the manner of young Senegalese of film of Christine Eymerie (the Voyage of Baba). The conditions of exercise change. On a side, pleasing stages, traced and rolled lawns, cages equipped with nets, regulation uniforms and clean cloakrooms ; other, waste grounds, stony and dusty, with the dubious limits quickly overflowed by the public, with the rafistolés goals, where one juggles and dribble naked feet or with only one shoe. The insane ones of balloon play of the hours, until exhaustion, passing from a match to another. It is there, in the football of the districts, that the seedbeds of African virtuosos are. The Ghanaian Anthony YEBOAH, one of the stars of the English club Leeds United, remembers that, when it had ten years, it sometimes happened to him to play six matches in the same day, until the evening, energy from one team and one district to another (Africa Football, 1995, p. 27).

1.3. Football business : emptied Africa of its best elements.

Most gifted in the national teams juniors, those find themselves very early where Africa shines more and imposes itself in the world cuts and the international tournaments reserved on less than seventeen years.

The headhunters of the rich person European clubs come to make their market there, devoting more and more openly to a plundering African young talents, for the greatest profit of their purchasers.

With them, is added another species, local, but more dangerous, because it is unforeseeable in the transactions on the transfers of young African, including the minors of age. Witness, the Nigerian Nwankwo Kanu, current member of the English club of Arsenal, champion of Europe of the clubs in 1995 with Ajax of Amsterdam, which recruited it at sixteen years reports: « During the World cup juniors in Japan, in 1993, I was literally attacked by business managers from all Europe. I understood that I was to seize my chance, and I chose Ajax. » (Africa Football, 1995, p. 40).

« Today, 342 African professional players, more than it gathered there in South Africa for the final phase of the EDGE, play in European clubs (including 90 in France): 54 Nigerians, 36 Ghanaians, 31 Zaireans, 24 Algerians, 19 Cameronian, 13 Bast and as many Angolan (Gazetta dello Sport, 1997). Without counting those which will finish their career close to the petrodollars of the Middle East. In many countries, it is a good part of the elite which emigrated; in Zaire and Cameroun, it is half of the national team; more still in those devastated by the internal conflicts: two thirds of the national teams of Liberia, of Sierra Leone, of Angola, but also of that of Ghana. Because, during the civil war, the spectacle continues: national championship and international meetings.

In 1994-1995, the team of Algeria in disputed twenty, that of Liberia, twelve, that of Sierra Leone, sixteen, those of Angola, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of Congo (ex- Zaire), respectively, ten, twelve and fourteen. The team of the sporting Youth of Kabylie gained in Algiers, in December 1995, the final of the Cut of Africa of the victorious clubs of cut. This painted decoration, in a hardly veiled way, lasts it battle that deliver themselves people informed to the advertisement of the elections to the head of the national federations, continental and international of football.

1.4. Football business : Africa victim of its material poverty.

Sign dependence, Africa does not retain more its sportsmen that its brains or its natural richnesses. Compared with Europe, the means of the clubs and federations are ridiculous. On equal level, the remuneration of the players is there ten to twenty times lower, when it is perceived. And even, it happens that they make the advance or pay of their pocket the travelling expenses. Only one match of Cut of Europe of Real of Madrid more reports to the European Federation of football (the UEFA) that all competitions organized in one year by its African counterpart, the African Confederation of football (CIF). (Africa Football, December 1995).

The private financings are limited to the commercial repercussions that sponsors and patrons can expect some, i.e. little thing on skeletal markets. As for the public financing, it still rarefied with the generalization of the plans of structural adjustment.

Lastly, deprived or public, in Africa as in Europe, the money of football is too often diverted by persons in charge and intermediate professional for the swindle. ASEC Mimosa of Abidjan, Orlando Pirate «of Soweto, Petro Sport of Nice Port, Petro Atletico de Luanda, remain the exceptions: the gold of the Ghanaian mines, in Ashanti country, ensured the prosperity of the team of Gold Fields d' Obuasi; like tourism that of sporting Star of the Sahel, in Sousse, in Tunisia; the oil companies, where they are installed, finance» their «clubs, like Petro Sport of Nice Port, Petro Atletico de Luanda, and the army, a little everywhere, maintains to them his on the model the team the royal army Forces (FAR) Moroccan. Elsewhere, in fact the supporters shareholders bring the funds, as with the ASEC Abidjan, in Coast-of Ivoire, Vita Club, Motema Pembe (Daring Club) and Dragons of Kinshasa.

At all events, the transfer remains one of the most important operations which allow the clubs football to be supplied as players, their raw materials. A good transfer by the acquisition of the talented players could constitute the starting point of the fortune of a team which was not classified at the beginning among the richest clubs. That supposes that the club is able to resell its best players at enticing prices.

1.5.a. Transfer : Source of provisioning of the raw material clubs.

Admittedly, « the sport (passive) and the sporting practice are used first of all for ludic or competitive ends, meet needs for physical drive, health, relaxation or are simply intended for socialization and the entertainment (characteristic constitutive of the term) (Rahmann and Al, 1998), Heinemann (1995), Hoffmann., Weber and Al (1995).

But, from a micro-economic point of view, it is obvious that the sport is subjected to the economic laws, D `a share, parce qu `it satisfies needs for the individuals and, thus, brings to them L `utility, D `another share, parce qu `it consumes rare resources subjected of alternative use (Büch, 1996, p. 23). The sporting practice itself thus has the value D `an economic activity, even of an act of consumption «(Andreff W, 1999, p.135).

C `is there qu `it is necessary to announce the birth in the sport of the need for the transfer. The request S `is proven increasing thereafter because of the repercussions from which the clubs profited which resorted to it. This request is, aujourd `today with L `origin of true markets of the sport where it meets a diversified and specialized offer and where the preferences of the economic agents are revealed in price and quantities.

C `is what reflect the tables below, through which, it is released clearly that the clubs, fairly or really rich person are rather present lately on the crammed markets of D `and factors of production D `Africa other developing countries like those D `Latin America, to proceed at low prices to L `purchase of new talents, qu `they end up reselling at paradoxically high cost.

« Indeed, in South America and Africa, the degree D `organization of football weakest, if L `one considers the relationship between the number of people practicing this sport and the number of bachelors, is recorded and organized in clubs. This mass of the practice even more lorsqu `they is framed form the bases on which S `builds to it spectacle-company football. » (Charles André UDRY, 1998).

All the leading institutions of football knew that so that this prosperous business, one would need qu `it gains shares of market.

Hereafter, figures drawing up the situation of the practice of football in the world.

TABLE I. FOOTBALLERS IN THE WORLD.

TABLE II. PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALLERS IN THE WORLD.

Source of the tables: EPS, Paris, November December 1997.

The figures thus benches should know a light modification, but which, as a whole would be far from reversing the weight of each continent.

The transfers are carried out on the basis of number of the practice laid off at the international level. Here, the professional players, points iceberg, are the target of the commercial and commercial aimings of the richest clubs.

Knowing that L `Africa and L `South America, including L `Asia, the latter, because of the fact that she still truly did not know the popular enthusiasm of the football, contain enormous young people players with the talent which does not need demonstration to continue with the eyes of the world, the teams are supplied there without many difficulties. The transfer thus makes it possible the profit clubs to be made associate the services of the players, for the improvement of their performances, certainly, but also of the increase in their profit.

The Barber economy of June 8, 1998 affirmed in this direction that « the players represent to some extent the credits [within the meaning of the credits of a company] of a team and that to control the resale, the age of the player is also a major element ». This handle does not amount per thousands. They acts rather of the players who ensure the possibility their club of placing themselves in the profitable European tournaments. Those which are ready to be sold by releasing a maximum appreciation.

One will retain with UDRY that they are the players « who, by their sporting productivity, attract sponsors and witnesses supporters. Thus, they make it possible to make sales turnover and to deliver a good profit margin.

Admittedly, Professor Késenne Stefan (1999, p. 2) at a rate of thinking that the European clubs seek more of success than the profit, expensive with the American sporting clubs, however, the logic of the profit has, more and more, tendency to make beat a retreat the healthy mobile of success, without claiming to draw aside it.

Accordingly, the transfer or the acquisition of the players reassures the clubs. it is « an investment which will bring back a profit ». (The Economist, June 1998).

This investment became the war-horse of certain European clubs considered as belonging to richest.

TABLE III. THE EUROPEAN CLUBS RICHEST ACCORDING TO THE SALES TURNOVER 1997 EXPRESSED IN MILLION FRENCH FRANCS.

.

This classification underwent a light modification, as that informs it besides which follows.

TABLE IV. 15 RICH PERSON CLUBS OF EUROPE ACCORDING TO THE REVENUS'98/99 IN MILLION DOLLARS

Source : Deloitte and Touche, Close carryforwards, the clubs, included in Time of June 5, 2000, p. 52.

1.5.b. Comments.

Generally, the players of a little everywhere engage in an international mobility towards the European clubs where football is a profitable occupation. Blow, instead of waiting until they are always requested, these clubs take more and more, themselves, the front while taking care to engage the most the better possible ones. Several reasons can explain this state of affair.

1.5.b.1°. Clubs with the research of the raw materials to increase their profits and their success.

To justify the multinationalisation of the economy, the editions Robert Laffont-Gramont (1975, p. 62), explain why it is the research of the profit which is the cause. They admit in addition that the most fundamental law which governs the movement of the industrial capital, commercial or banking is that of profit. However, the funded capital directly in the production, in the form of factories, of machines, raw materials or wages, is obviously with the source of all the profits, insofar as the quantity of human work contained in the goods determines its price, and where this price is higher than the amount of money spent by the contractor to produce these goods. But, to produce this profit, the contractor must sell his goods, i.e. to transform them into money. Is it correct to compare the purchase, the production and the transformation of the goods by multinational corporations beyond their borders with the operations of purchase and sale, apart from their borders, by clubs of football, players who, a priori, are not goods ? There a question of ethics is put, but which establishes simply an analogy extremely worn by the new actors of internationalization in the sporting sector.

However, it sied to mention it, at present, the player is compared to goods. It is thus regarded as a factor of production of which the marginal utility increases day at the day. In right however, a strong controversy could one day burst about the exact nature of the man-player in the contract of transfer. But, the organization of football, being based on the specificity of this one, had to conceive similar situation which it is not any more question of giving up, but well rather to perfect.

Much more, we said, the conquest of success does not miss in the multiple international transfers of the players, by the European teams of football. Indeed, the national and international competitions put at the catches several clubs which run, each one, after the title concerned. When one can hold up his many titles, medals and cut, certainly, the fame of this kind attracts respect and regards. The European clubs, know thus, that the acquisition or the conservation of the trophies is a high level test which leaves in the passing sacrifices and expenditure that only the choice of good players could quickly make forget.

From there, nothing any more would especially astonish the race that launch out these European clubs of football to treat to players abroad, because of the fact that there, they cost less expensive, but once acquired, they would record the level of the team and, who more is, could be resold at ransom prices. The example of success of the clubs which align good players, bought often abroad, makes that it is rare to see a European national championship folded up on only Europeans. Each year, the springtides always start on information, remainder, confirmed, relating to new come.

However, the amounts of their purchase appear only when they seem to be exaggerated or make depend annual success awaited on the team of its recruits. In this context, the new players become object, then of attention overall, and the spectators, always demanding, and of the sponsors, avid of expansion of their good image and undoubtedly of the club itself. The example of the Belgian championship that we give hereafter corroborates the assertions thus emitted.

TABLE V. HIGHLIGHT OF THE TRANSFERS IN BELGIUM (SEASON 2000-2001)

As one can note it, more half of the players evolving/moving in the Belgian championship of the first division makes up of nationals of the foreign countries distributed as follows :

2/3 Europe but especially of Eastern Europe (Croatia, Yugoslavia, Romania, Albania, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, etc), while the 1/3 comes from Africa. Such is not however the situation in France, where, the proportion of the African players evolving/moving in the first division is rather high. The configuration of the national team of France of football is, certainly, the dedication of African migratory flow and there, the contribution of the international mobility of the players was not negative with football.

1.5.b.2°. The economic internationalization of the European clubs like consequence of

the stop Bosman (C-415/93 of December 15, 1995).

The Bosman stop returns in the name of the Belgian player, who, in 1990, at the end of his contract of player to Royal Football Club of Liege, considering refusing freedom to carry the shirt of his new club, in fact, the French Club of Dunkirk, by his old club, what it rejected an offer of the latter club to continue to play with the help of wages lower than that that it gained when the contract was still in force.

Bosman carried the business in front of the courses and courts Belgian in front of which, it pled the illegality of the system of the transfers of the players at the end of the contract, and thus its contradiction with the Treaty of Rome, constitutive of current European Union.

Become, like professor Késenne (2000, p. 95) writes it, the victim of a world boycott by the federations of Belgian and international football, Jean Marc Bosman had to wait during long years of misery, the decision of the European court of Justice, in answer to the prejudicial question subjected to him by the Court of Appeal of Liege tending to knowing if it were possible to observe the rules of the European Community legislation to the sport.

The response of the European Court pointing out the economic nature of the activity of the sport, and thus its tender, except with regard to, the case where the sport plays a purely sporting part, to all the legal arsenal already into force, led to the abolition of the allowances of the transfers, in particular for the players end contract and thus, the proclamation, even in the sporting field, of the principle of freedom of movement of the players amenable to the union in European space, as was already the case for the other workers.

But, in what, this stop was it to have a decisive incidence on the transfer, and particularly on the internationalization of this practice in football ?

For apprehending well the range of the question and answer which will be followed from there, it is necessary to point out the notable distinction which BOROUGH and GOUGUET (1998, PP-129-132) make, between the clubs maximisateurs of profits and the clubs maximisateurs of sporting performances.

The first have the legal structure of commercial companies, because they achieve, through all the sporting operations, of the acts considered commercial by the consequent laws their respective countries. Much more, when well even they would have the statutory appearance of non-profit-making associations, the constant and repeated practice commercial acts qualified by the law would not confer less the attribute to them of commercial companies. Such clubs enjoy a great freedom as regards transfer on a market related to commercial. They buy and sell the players on the market of the transfers, and the talents concentrate in rich clubs. The clubs are thus Masters of the players and they pay the latter by taking account of the other players not really transferable, but who render enormous services to the club. It acts like the American clubs. In Europe, on the other hand, the clubs are especially worried by the research of success, because, continue the above mentioned authors, following the nature of the sporting groupings (for the majority with nonlucrative goal), with the existence of recurring deficits in many championships and to a traditional culture of unit of the sport (amateur and professional) melting an ethics, the clubs attempt to constitute the best possible team in order to gain the greatest number of meetings. With this intention and, within the limit of the budget, a policy of recruitment of the best talents is implemented, much more than on the assumption of maximization of the profits.

However, it is made that with the interpenetration of football business in Europe, the clubs initially misaient to preserve and consolidate their success, but at the same time, they realized that football got beyond the success, some financial repercussions which, of the blow, became, more and more, their concern. The discovery of this news gives which was tested in particular by the purchase of the players and their resale, in the hope, often reached important financial appreciations knows a brake with the Bosman stop, which preaches freedom of movement of the European players end contract, i.e., the absence of any allowance of transfer for this category of players.

But, Europe not being only space provider of young players, the clubs quickly thought of Africa where the acquisition of the players does not cost them much money, and in the Latin America, where, the preceding reason applies mutatis-mutandis and whose success of certain nationals in European championships could inspire only confidence and recourse. That, because the leaders of these clubs know that for nonEuropean subjects, provisions of the Community right and jurisprudence

are not opposable for them, as let it know Mr. David H. WILL more

(1999, p. 7) (The viewpoint federations one the new transfer rules, in Késenne S., Jeanrenaud C., COp cit., p. 7) : « this is something that we in Europe tightens to forget, Bosman does apply only in Europe, and only to has share off Europe ; the rest off the football world continuous virtually unaffected by it ».

This way, since «many clubs of football in Europe incorporated always the value of transfer of their players like a credit and used this credit as banker's guarantee for their loans » (Késenne S., 2000, p. 97), currently, these clubs simply moved the context of application of logic. Instead of doing it for the European subjects, for which the transfer is not more advantageous than it was it formerly, they do it for the young sportsmen come from apart from Europe from the Nations, insofar as, in addition to the abolition of the old system of the transfers, the European Court of justice establishes the nullity of the clause of nationality, which limited the number of the foreign players in the European clubs to to the more three. Therefore, intensification of the international transfer operations,

involve also the increase in the international mobility of the work, which, like remarks it professor Késenne (ibidem), constitutes a mechanism of natural balancing to which all the sectors must face the increasing globalisation of the economy. Moreover, it is noted that the force of the transfers is dependant on the effectiveness of its market : the mercato.

Paragraph 2 : The market of purchase and sale of the players : mercato.

Through the definition (1) and the mode of making (2), the market of sale and purchase of the players, that on whom the latter are acquired could better render comprehensible the internationalization of football.

2.1. Definition of the mercato.

From Latin mercatus, mercato, comes from the gone term, which appears for the first time in the French language in XIIe century, in the form of marchiet. The Small one

Robert gives the following definition of it: «public place of sale of goods and services. » This word is connected with merchant, of the vulgar Latin mercatans, a form with the participle present of the verb mercatare, derived from mercatus. In fact, the commercial word appears in the French language starting from XIIe century, sometimes spelled marcheant. If these two words are particularly old, the term of bargaining, does not appear him for the first time in 1867.

Mercato, as its name indicates it, is applied in the jargon footbalistic to indicate the annual market of the transfers of the players. It opens towards the end of August and encloses on January 31, in theory, then that it can be also spread out over all the year, without never being closed again.

By having a name, the mercato, which is not a visible market where one can discuss the price of the players with their offerers, marks nevertheless an important stage in football business, another exploit to be allotted to the XXème century, which the economy was completely globalisée, football, his bet for the transformation of all the sporting sector into field of commercial experiment and where, finally, the player, out of shorts and Nylon billboard, is sold, rather well. Without being fought, the market of sale and purchase of the players is extremely adulated by the sporting clubs, in the clear sight to offer the services of new talents. Even for the players, it is a good opportunity for the players who do not play or little, even if they always are not courted.

The clubs often prefer to carry out large businesses and to prepare their recruitment for the next season without trying to rebalance their team whereas the possibility is given to them by it.

As one season of football starts in July and finishes in June, the teams get information and move throughout the world to prospect the players on whom they do not hide their interest. Thus, since they have of it really the capacity, either, by the channel of the independent agents, or by the means of that with which they pay a kind of premium, the teams, especially those of Europe, manage to unearth and obtain, in time, payment of the best players of the world.

That could be explained by the traditional law of supply and. Domenica Six, an Agent of the players, holder of license FIFA on the matter, explains that : « Frankly, carried out work is not always sufficiently precise. Personally, I try to make a basic review with the clubs while trying to determine their real needs with the maximum of exactitude. It is curious, sometimes, to note that a club for submission to sticking the services of such or such player at all costs. My axis of work is to identify the type of player which the club needs really to be reinforced. Once elected, I seek « the rare bird », even if this one is not always easy to find at that time. »

But, it sied to retain that «the essence of recruitment and the construction of the team are done before the starting of the season». As for the players concerned, for Dobraje, sizeable agent players, it acts of elements «in delicate position in a manpower, or that the club does not want to preserve any more». There the true nature of the mercato appears: a possibility of correction.

In France, there is also the supplement of the mercato : the winter market of the transfers (December-31 18 January). It is addressed almost exclusively to the evil classified of the championship or, more specifically, to the clubs which are estimated like such. It was created to polish or supplement certain teams. It is neither more nor less than one correction. One can call that a prolongation of the period of jokers until January 31. «: » It relates to a rather restricted fork of players. It is only the occasion to reinforce one, even two stations. «For Domenica Six, with the mercato «the clubs have a second possibility of recruiting whereas they know their gaps compared to the first part of the championship. The trainers can thus modify their manpower in a surgical way. Now,

some can be tempted to operate many changes because no rule prevents them. » (The Humanity of January 05, 2000).

2.2. Transfer of the players : future prospects

The practices, especially when they are good, are thus difficult to change.

The debates on the transfers of the sportsmen in general and the players of football, in particular feed the chronicle so much lately that it is malevolent not to speak about it within the framework about this study. In its book the Bosman business. End of the era of the transfers ?, professor Blanpain R. (1996, p. 6) warned already, in the sport business, the abuses the practices mercantilists on the men, the players. He wrote in particular that the man is not goods, he is not an object of trade.

Since, and before the higher bids of the three last seasons transfers, the European Commission took the initiative, to sensitize the opinion on the decline voluntary and prejudicial of the sporting objectives compared to the commercial continuations.

Mrs Buffet, current French Minister for Youth and the Sports, spoke, it, of the commercial drifts or artificial monetary flows, at the moment when others see there a kind of spiral mercantile (BROHM J.M, 2000, pp. 26-27). Which is the progress achieved on the future of the current system of the transfers ?

2.2.a. Position of the European union on the practice of the transfers.

For the European Commission, the system of the transfers of the sportsmen in football violates the Treaty of Rome of 1952, constitutive of the European union. It is against the fundamental principles of the union related with freedom of movement for the workers and the free competition. From where, its abolition or at least its reform is essential.

Certain clubs have rather rich manpower. There are players who were not used yet and who will undoubtedly not be it even if, at the beginning, they were supposed being of great importance for their team. The leaders prefer to continue to recruit without using them. After, to include/understand why. ?

Therefore, commercial logic enormously underlies the policy of recruitments of new players, throughout the world. The players themselves are hardly content with the formula of transfers such as one resorts to it today. French national union of the footballers

Professionals (UNFP) spoke about «market of slaves». (The Humanity of January 16, 2000)

2.2.b. Position of the authorities of football : impact of the abolition of the system of transfers.

When the administrators of football defend the system of transfers, their first and more important argument are than a sporting league needs a reasonable degree of uncertainty as for the result. The spectators are interested by a sporting meeting if the winner is known before the play does not start or with a sporting competition whose champion is known before Ia mid- season. A sport of team needs a competitive balance between the teams taking part in a championship.

  Because of their site in large cities equipped with a high density of population, certain clubs have a higher potential to find talents and to attract a higher number spectators in comparison with the clubs of smaller cities.

Owing to the fact that the teams of large cities have more raised incomes, they can offer higher wages to the players and consequently attract the best of them of all the corners of the country.

A liberalized market of the players would have as a result the concentration of all the players of talent in only one or a small number of large clubs, which harms the competitive balance of the championship, decreases the uncertainty of the result and reduces the interest of the spectator. Consequently, a system of transfers is necessary to guarantee to the small clubs the right to reserve some good players for themselves and to sell other good players on the market.

  Another concern derives owing to the fact that the system always had the aim of compensating for the money spent by the small clubs for the training of young players. These clubs will lose the allowances of transfer which they receive for the sale of the talents. If the young players having talent can leave their clubs to go in a better club without there being a financial compensation, not only the first will have financial problems, but moreover the training of young people will be discouraged, so that this important social function of the sport will disappear.

Another problem seems to come up, the exodus towards large clubs of young players sometimes even old only ten years. The exodus is done from one club to another but also from one country to another. The will to train these young players is certainly creditable but one should not occult the side mercantilist of such transfers. That could be controlled on the fact that a very young player is not ensured to become Ronaldo.

A last problem relates to the distribution of wages to the players. A free market of players would cause a climbing of the wages of the best players, because the clubs will be made competition to engage them. This situation is created with the detriment of the players of the average teams and the profit of the owners of the clubs. It results from this a distribution even more unequal from the wages. The high wages of certain players, thus poured with the detriment of the profit of the club, are likely to worsen the financial insecurity of the small clubs, which will be unable to pay the overcost of work.

It is since Tuesday October 31 2000 that the joint committee of the FIFA/Uefa gave to the European subcommittee bureau, the new proposals which should govern the transfers of the sportsmen. Thus, according to the world of football,

- the transfers of the minors are from now on prohibited ;

- the duration of the transfers would be with more than 2 to 3 years ;

- only a transfer would be authorized by team, per annum.

2.2.3. Quid of the future of the mercato ?

However, taking into account the many disturbances which it generated, the continuation of the mercato is not any more unanimous setting of way by all the experts of football. In France, for example, the national union of the trainers, frameworks and professional technical administrators of football (UNECATEF) had launched in December a «consultation» on the continuation or not of the market of winter of sale and purchase of the players. «75%

trainers, D1 and D2 confused, decided against «. The trainer of Auxerre details: » We are against because it creates disorders in our manpower. Players, those which always do not play, the substitutes, see an advisability of going in a club where they think of playing. They put all the bazaar to us. «Ground on which the interests of various protagonists, namely, players, managers, trainers and leaders of teams are always opposite, the mercato does not satisfy anybody, completely.

Jean-Luc Arribart predicted even the end of the current round of observation and the future, according to him, is dark: «The interest of the managers being to make move their players as often as possible, the transfers will accelerate in winter because the players listen to much their managers. The players and their agents have the capacity today. They decide duration of the contract, clauses which they wish, when they leave. They seized the power because one gave them. There is no counterpart for them: they have all the advantages without having the disadvantages. If the player is good, it will leave to seek fortune elsewhere. If it is not good, it will leave nevertheless. Front, it tried to recover its place with the drive or with the reserve to show with the trainer whom it had been mistaken. Today, one calls his manager to leave. » In front of such a table and taking into consideration survey of the trainers, only one question arises: should the mercato be preserved? «I preached his suppression near the League of which I am a vice-president, explains Guy Roux, but I was minority. The presidents of club voted his continuation. » In the name of the sacro-saint principle of alignment on the other European countries which have them also a mercato.

This tagging along aggravates Roux: « Fortunately that they are not thrown to water, if not, one all would swim. » Only the noun will be modified, reveals the Burgundian trainer, « because the UNFP (the trade union of the owners of club) found that that made a little mercantile ». These people-there are invaluable, and through their request, the embarrassment which one guesses on their premises lends to smiling. In any event, nobody will be easily deceived. «There is crafty one which proposed «the market of Christmas», but that makes the same effect that mercato», laughs Guy Roux.

As for Dobraje, it proposes «longer period of joker». Remain that instead of winter market, the trainers proposed the engagement of a joker. «The arrival of two jokers plus a guard during the same time appears more convenient to me», confirms Dobraje. (The Humanity of January 16, 2000).

2.2.4. Proposal for a solution.

A better dialog between agents, players and clubs would make it possible to limit the failures and to avoid the situations of blocking. In all the cases, the market of the transfers puts opposite three parts, in fact, the yielding team, the assignee team and, if necessary, the manager or the agent of player. What is particular in this market, it is the place which the player occupies, itself. Indeed, this place is quasi diluted in the nature of the contract. In the dialogs, the agreement of the player is acquired at once that the team of which he is member in expressed the keen desire and informed of it that which would wish to acquire it. It is in these terms that one can read article 13 of the payment of the FIFA relating to the statute and the transfer of the players. It is relayed in almost similar words by the provisions of the European regulations (UEFA) and Belgian (URBSFA) on the matter, as brought back by professor Blanpain Roger (1996, pp. 41-78). As, it appears as the agreement of two clubs concerned with the transfer of the player is enough so that this one is perfect. Remain however, the question of the manager.

2.3. The manager.

This last is the intermediary to which it player entrusts for in particular defending its interests in this kind of trade. Taking into account the term of the office that the manager is given on defense of the aforesaid interests of the player, it manages this last with greatest delicacy, especially if the player with the irrefutable reputation of star, capable to still remain from the point of view of the conquests and covetousnesses of the richest clubs. It perceives enormous commissions on the clear sum which in end of the accounts the player receives.

Because of their influence on the ground of businesses of football business and their alliances throughout the world with the leaders of the modest clubs, the managers are another race which one can regard as contributing to their manner with internationalization of this sport.

In addition to the fact that their prospection is not limited in only one State, they are able to carry out recruitments the many ones and talented players who make the pride and consolidate the success of the teams. They make and demolish the teams, and because of them, the wages of the players showed a gradual increase, like illustrates it hereafter the graph, which indicates the evolution of the wages of the players of football of the first English division. In the graph which illustrates this data table better, one realizes obviously owing to the fact that the curve, drawn in bottom, of these wages is ascending.

That is explained by the progressive insertion of football in the bosoms of the commercial economy. Football became a profession, like are already of different. But, this situation is neither single, nor specific to the only English football.

In fact, Europe, which is one of the most important tanks of the professional footballers faces a species of a new innovative wage report/ratio since the Bosman stop.

The fields tension of the wage policy swims between two slopes. The first stresses the optimization of the commercial value of a player high-speed motorboat, and thus with high sporting productivity, with which wages and raised premiums will be allocated, given that that this expenditure, which have sometimes the value of a saving, will be recovered thanks to the unit of the incomes which the profit player will inevitably bring to the club, via a transfer to the good moment and the good purchaser. Naturally, the baremic grid of the wages mentioned above and to which this justification is referred relates to a minority of profitable players of the hardening of Shine Figo (Real Madrid), David Beckham, Roy Kean (Manchester), Rivaldo (Barcelona), Shabani Nonda (Monaco), Jan Koller and Radzinski (Anderlecht), Marc de Gryse (Germinal Beerschot Antwerpen), Bangoura and Mbayo (Lokeren), Boeka Lisasi (Westerlo). And the list can lengthen in all the clubs, then that each one of these teams to this handle in her center.

In addition, the more or less anonymous players, from now on are placed in a situation of trend precarisation of work, remainder, increasing with the age. They are shown consequently less claiming, by accepting on the other hand very important differentials with regard to the wages and of the premiums as well as various contracts.

Table n° VI : Wages of the players of First League English of football.

Source : Deloitte and Touche, quoted by Time of June 05, 2000, p. 52

Thus the largest transfers of the history, which are registered on this ascending impetus, are announced only after 1995.

Table VII : Ten larger transfers of the history of football business in million French francs.

Source : fr.sports.yahoo.com/00091/1/mc0.html

It gets clear that all these transfers are carried out to the profit of the teams of Europe. They concern, in major part, of the players of the developing countries of South America. As for the African players, several juicy transfers were also carried out. It is the case, in particular, of Congolese (Zairean ex) Shabani Nonda, transferred from Saint-Etienne in Monaco (2000-20001), for nearly 20 million dollars. He became the player African footballer expensive in the world, right before the Okocha Nigerian, transferred from Galatasaray to Paris-Saint-Germain (1998-1999), for the amount of 17 million American dollars.

The transfers are not the only channel of the internationalization of football, had us says a little higher. Many clubs think more and more of operating on the foreign territory. Not only that they buy players there, but also they take part in the diversification of the elements of their growth, as well on the financial level as on that of prestige.

It is the way of establishment abroad, which takes the form sometimes center of formation, sometimes of direct foreign investment, sometimes still of fusion acquisition with other local clubs, even of company at the shared risk.

Section 2. THE MULTINATIONALISATION OF FOOTBALL BUSINESS :

ESTABLISHMENT Abroad

It is not usual to hear expressions like that in the high-speed motorboat. At first sight, it resembles more one bastard coupling than with a reality which can be observed and to analyze itself with suitable lenses. However, it is well the case, in spite of the fact that multinationalisation rimerait harmoniously with companies or firms. But DUNNING John H. (2000, p. 10) recognizes that « the growth of the knowledge of capitalism led to an explosion of alliances inter firms ».

In fact, for a very long time, only the multinational corporations had the capacity and the monopoly to operate on other territories. The investments thus carried out take several forms. In their recent work on the strategic globalisation and alliances applied to the industry of the air lines, TAE Hoon Oum, Jong-Hun Park and Anming Zhang (2000, p. 11) outline that through the technique of strategic alliances, the firms hope to have access on or to divide on the markets, the products, the resources and technology. Alliances are born to reduce the costs, to share the risks, to manufacture complementary services, to reinforce the distribution and to optimize the strategies of marketing. This explanation contains also some reasons for which the clubs of football cannot any more be satisfied with the territory of seat.

The hyper-marchandisation of the sport, consequence of universalization, justifies for a greater part, this state of affairs. Indeed, with dimensions out of purse, facing competition, always increasing, their adversaries and wanting to maintain the level, at the same time prestige and budget, at the moment when, the explosion of the wages of the players is an obviousness (Késenne S and Jeanreaud C, COp cit., p. 1), the clubs of football have, perhaps, without really to have envisaged it like such, considering their aspect to be identified, by moment, with that of the transnational corporations or multinational.

According to Drucker P. (1997), a transnational corporation has only one economic area, the world ; even if the sale, maintenance and the legal service are assumed locally, the fixing of the prices, the management of finances, research are carried out according to the world market. This theoretical effort of differentiation between the transnational corporation and that multinational A however the merit to bring out the features characteristic of the latter. It acts, says Mucchielli J.L (1998, p. 18), of very undertaken having at least a manufacturing unit abroad, because, multinationals, transnational, transplants, subsidiary companies are only of multiple names or qualifiers given to this type of company.

The clubs of football do thus not miss completely of this dial, insofar as, for the very first time, the road towards their multinationalisation coincides with this reflection of Mr. David H. WILL (1999, p. 13), bearing on the point of view of the federations (of football) on the new rules of transfer. To react to the decision of the European Court of Justice in the business Bosman, the vice-president of the FIFA, pleading the death of football, the appearance of several possibilities in the medium of the clubs foresaw, in order to mitigate the hard effects of the stop. Thus, he said in particular that  « concept off feeder clubs is already established in nap countries- has major club with one gold has off number smaller satellite clubs, the relative club helping financially with youth general training and running costs, goal having first cal one transfer off satellite' S players ». Born from a feeling of pain, internationalization, thus described seems to bear fruit.

Paragraph 1. The presence of the clubs of football abroad.

Of aucuns admit that the establishment abroad, for purposes of exploitation of its business abroad, is one of the consequences of the acceleration of universalization. The dream of this one is achieved, not because it is new, but because technology is new and particularly effective. To equip its reasoning, the economist Nigerian, OKGBO (1999, pp. 101-102), summarizes that « in 70 years, between 1920 and 1990, the cost of the maritime transport dropped of more than 66%, while during ten years, between 1960 and 1970, the cost of air transport decreased by 60%... the costs of the international telephone calls decreased of more than 80%, between 1940 and 1970 and of 90%, between 1970 and 1990. » Consequently, why, one would not yield easily to temptation to conquer new spaces which are precursory good bargains for an economic operator ?

Easy to conceive for the trade undertakings, internationalization seems not to adapt to the clubs of football. However, if one transposes the concept of the vice-president of the FIFA, which speaks about club relative and food club, one approaches a reality which already shaped. But that is not carried out a feature. In the lines which follow, we try to recall the route, not always unilinear, several clubs of football, among which those richest.

1. A. PRESENCE ABROAD WITHOUT INVESTMENT.

In front of the requirements of the international development of the football and of material and budgetary capacity of the clubs, the strategy of the latter first of all consists in increasing their possibility of gaining the most matches, then to be maintained in the best position with the general classification of a league or championship, not to undergo humiliating it sanction of relegation. Thus, the teams carry out recruitments of those which they regard as good players, it their race, their origin does not matter. Lately, the work of the international organizations of defense of the humans right collected great success, while making dissipate the suspicion of racism which weighed on the policy of recruitment of certain teams of football. And, the Third World, after ceaseless victories in international competitions, became the target most concerned clubs of European football. They are not however all the countries of the Third World which is concerned. While waiting for the still slow opening of the countries of Asia, in this matter, Africa and South America come at the head. The clubs make use for that of the agents of recruitment. But like, they cost expensive, they often resort to their former players, amenable to the Third World countries.

Indeed, even if they did not return in their countries, at the end of their professional career, old the stars third-mondistes of European football continue to be active in the reinforcement of manpower of their former teams. This strategy, effective, finds especially its climax in the fact that in their countries of origin, these former players very often profit from regards, if, with their credit, the national results were good. And rewards some, they receive a commission which makes them, then commissioned agents. It symbolizes the first form of the durable relations between a rich club and a given geographical corner.

1.A.1. The commissioned Agent or the semi-official recruiter.

Called sometimes, agent at the commission or sales representative, the recruiting agent of young players for a given geographical sector, is not to confuse with an intermediary. Because, this last buys the players on the local market with its own funds and negotiates their resale with the rich clubs. On the other hand, like that which acts in international export commercial, the commissioned agent does not take a margin, but it is remunerated by the club by means of a commission on the operations of purchase for the benefit of the club, which its initiative allowed.

1.A.1.a. Characteristics of the formula.

Convinced, in the majority of the cases, that the Third World constitutes a market where one could supply oneself as players with few expenses, and sometimes where the infrastructures able to hatch on its best level the talent of the young sportsmen are cruelly lacking, the rich clubs resort to this formula which has the advantage of indicating like commissioned agent, a former player, of good reputation, less demanding with respect to its former employer. In this context, it passes for :

- An agent. As such, it acts with the name and for the account of this one. This mandate gives him the capacity to negotiate and carry out football business, without masks itself for a long time, the shade of the true purchaser, namely, the club.

- An independent intermediary.

In this quality, it proves that it is free organization of its activity.

Lastly, it is not doubt that it is regularly charged, and nonoccasional, of the search for young players, then to propose on sale with the club with the name of which it acts.

1.A.1.b. Functions of the agent.

Its essential function is to prospect and unearth in time any talented player, star rising of football in his geographical area. This one covers, with some exceptions, the territorial limits of a city or a province having in its championship of teams of football. This kind of agent, through which the majority of the rich teams operate on grounds even remote countries of their, is different from another which, is to him holder of a license of the FIFA.

1.A.1.c. Behavior of the commissioned agents and range of internationalization.

In comparison with the method setting-up, in fact the agreement « illicit » between employment contractors of the players of the Third World and their former members, one can wonder whether the transfers carried out in this manner licit, and are entered or if one can regard this operation as being a transfer. With our opinion, the negative one is essential. Because, at first sight, which says transfer, within the meaning of the FIFA and of its affiliated, known as contract signed between two clubs of football.

The player is not subtilized in catimini. Indeed, carrying out their activities clandestinely, certainly, in margin of the laws and established sporting payments, the commissioned agents, also called semi-official recruiters, see being confirmed this other attribute whose pejoration is not exaggerated at all. They differently try out the reality of the mercato, already examined. If they do not have the calling card of a large local club of football, to hardly veil the image of slave trader who sticks it to the skin, these agents, forts of the silver advantages which them job gets to them, are established quickly in networks, where can find itself easily, official national federation of football, special correspondents of the Minister for the sports and certain dignitaries of the country which is used as folding screen in the event of the make-up removal of these practices.

Since often, the insurances offered by the agent to its club, in connection with its recruit, can prove less conclusive thereafter, it is frequent to note that, once in Europe, the young player who predestined himself with a prestigious career in his country of origin, finds himself abandoned in the street and condemned, in spite of him, with forced clandestinity. Here, we thus pose the problems of the requalification of the market of purchase and sale of the young players by men of which the statute not regulated by the national law remains in any case little glittering. They are true makers of « clandestine of football international ».

By reading the correspondence below of Cecilia GABIZON (1998), only the skeptics could underestimate the planetary width of these practices, with the imperfections disastrously élaguables : « In Brazil, hunting for the youthful talents is a high level sport. Sergio, 14 years tells : «I had just finished a match in my village, in Mato Grosso, when a man proposed to take me along to Rio, to play club of Vasco». His/her parents, street pedlars, immediately agreed, too happy to imagine a better life for their son. For one year, Sergio has divided a dormitory stripped with twenty other kids of all the country. Boarder of Vasco de Gama, champion of Brazil, his life is reduced to the balloon and the dream : «the road of glory is long. One must have surely forgotten from where one comes as one arrives there». As in any speculative transaction, the drama of the players on this market rhyme with the jubilation of the intermediaries. «Without intermediary, nobody can arrive there», slips Sergio, by looking at his discoverer. Ercy Rosa, around fifty, tired smile and Ray Round of applause foil, proclaims technical appraiser. For more than thirty years, it has had a network of observers which call it as soon as appears a gifted kid. Sometimes, Ercy moves, gauge the potential of the child and is given the responsability to convince the parents. A simple calling card to the colors of Vasco de Gama is often enough to impress them. «I do not propose money. But, I make it possible to their child the roof, cover, the medical care and, especially, to become a large player». They are thousands in Brazil to thus exploit the misery and the love of the foot. Because, if the kids do not see yet the color of gold, the discoverers such Ercy perceive the important sums for small most talented. «I sell an attacker like Sergio for 3000 dollars. A back will seek in the 15.000. Most required are the strikers enters 14 and 16 years». Since Ronaldo, the prices brutally climbed in Brazil, because the clubs fear to let escape the rare pearl. To have refused to pay the tickets of bus of the teenager Ronaldo, Flamengo lost the wonder, turned over to play in the working suburbs of Rio. Little time after, two contractors, Reinaldo Pitta and Alexandre Martins, discovered it in its club of São Cristovão. It was 14 years old and was worth 7.500 dollars. Malignant, they obtained a delegation of the parents ensuring a statute of tutors to them. Today, Ronaldo maintains nearly 40 people to the country. Its business managers inherit vain commissions to each transaction and manage with profit its image. The history is not always also happy. On 1.000 endowed kids, one or two will be aces; a handle, players pro; the others will turn over to the normal life, «a great dream in less», comments on Eduardo, 17 years. He left Bahia and its family one year ago, attracted in Rio by a véreux discoverer. The day when it was wounded, the club where it was with the test and the frontier runner it gave up. Since, it is involved on a waste ground and does not dare to return at his place the empty hands. In this trade without contract nor laid down rules, the clubs worry little about the wounded people. To avoid being made steal a future champion by a competitor, they prefer to accommodate many kids, for the majority acquired with three pennies of assistance to the family and a small check with the discoverer. Romario, Carlos Germano, Edmundo, inter alia, are from the die of Vasco. «A player of talent is worth at least 10 million dollars. That covers the administrative expenditures of my sections amateurs during six years», calculates Darcy Peixoto, the leader of the club. Jota Jota, voluntary, accommodates free young people of the shantytowns at the edge of the beach of Rio. It is ironical: «One is obliged to sell our children. Here, they have very few chances to leave itself there. Fortunately that God had an illumination when it created football. It gave the talent to the poor.».

The nets of such agents did not save the young talents especially of Africa, bus, as Gazetta dello Sport (1998, p. 5) brings it back « more than 300 African professional players play in European clubs (including 90% in France) : Nigerians, Ghanaians, Zairean, Algerian, Cameronian, bast or Angolan. »

Unfortunately, it is frequently noted that certain African clubs of football which one would await obviously the launching of a true partnership with teams of the close countries, raffolent illicit tranferts. The strategy installation often offers a spectacle like this one : they place in famous countries « seedbeds » of the talented players of the semi-official recruiters, who are used to them as intermediaries, to only provide them at cheap price, certainly, of the young footballers of the country in which they are also originating.

In the majority of the cases, these clubs belong to the oil companies or those having invested in sectors which confer a quite real importance to them. Thus the Democratic Republic of Congo feeds it the teams of the oil companies of Angola, Gabon and the teams of the mining companies of Zambia.

1.A.1.d. Transfers of the Congolese players operated by semi-official recruiters.

According to the newspaper the Future, a daily newspaper appearing in Kinshasa (edition of November 27, 2000), which quotes in its turn the Vision newspaper, always of the market of the press kinoise (edition of November 23, 2000) « transfers of the Congolese players, evaluated with 461.000 $ US are negotiated in Angola ». The newspaper published the list partial of the negotiators with, taking into consideration each name, the amount of the transfer. However, the interrogation by the two newspapers on the fact of knowing if the Treasury and the federation had been able to perceive their respective percentages on all these transactions throws a real doubt on the admissibility of the aforesaid transfers. Therefore, the thesis of illicit transfers and semi-official recruitments cuts well growth its way of confirmation. In the case of Congo, facility with which the young players readily agree from to go away towards the eldorado on the one hand, and the inefficiency of the measurements taken by the political and administrative authorities tending to thwart these massive departures are due to the fact that without policy of use nor of framing of the young people, even of all the working population national, no concession to convince the young people to remain with the country is not possible. Moreover, although abroad, the players who are able to emerge there contribute to their manner with survival of their families living in Congo.

Table VIII. List partial of the negotiators of the transfers of the Congolese players evolving/moving in Angola.

1. Madilu Patcheli.

Sub-total : 65.000 $ US

2. Edouard Kiaku Mbuta.

Sub-total : 246.000 $ US

3. Cast iron-Nova

Sub-total : 124.000 $ US

4. Mr. Lakijo

Sub-total : 26.000 $ US

Grand total : 461.000 $ US

Source : Newspaper Future, edition of November 27, 2000

Notice :

It is true that the transfers of the players, illicit and licit, between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola are frequent, and are spread out over several years behind. However, even if the quoted newspapers do not give the years under reviews during which these operations were déoulées, it is extremely probable that information thus delivered would be close to true, because the people designated by name as negotiators are manifestly known Congolese sporting medium in general, and kinois in particular. But nothing makes it possible to believe that the transfers of the Congolese sportsmen take place only in football. The baskett and the martial arts are often victims of what would not be far from a raid. Not very eulogistic, the profile of the semi-official recruiter is opposed, would be this only on the plan of the principles, with that of the agent laid off of the FIFA.

1.A.2. The Agent laid off of the FIFA.

1.A.2.a. Definition

This category is governed by the payment of the FIFA of May 20, 1994 and concerns all the physical people who have as a principal activity «the transfer of the players of an association towards another ». Even if the definition of the agent laid off is not given expressis verbis in this payment, it is released there however that it is about an adviser who offers his services to the players in order to represent them or to safeguard their interests in the negotiations in the center of which those could be found with clubs or other players » (Article 1st of the above mentioned Regulation).

If it is true that the sportsmen, amateurs and professionals of football, claim themselves almost everywhere in the world, it does not remain about it less than when one tries to reconcile the definition with the profession, least logic would lean to see these agents in all the countries, especially like nationals of all the countries of the whole world. Unfortunately, it is realized that only the nationals of some States on the 200 which account the FIFA exert this trade. How to explain this state of affairs ?

1.A.2.b. Exercise of the profession : condition of access and obstacles

With our humble opinion, the exercise of this profession, which constitutes a hinged plate of the international market of the players, is butted with three types of obstacles that here : First milked with the insufficiency of publicity whose the text organizing profits the body from the agents of the players. The second obstacle, is, him, related to the conditions of access. Indeed, the paragraph 1st of the Article first of the Regulation lays down in clear terms the conditions of access, which appears, altogether, expensive.

One can read there that « the adviser (hereafter called agent of player) must be in possession of the license granted by the FIFA (for all types of transfers) or by his national association (for the local transfers only). That comprises for corollary that all impétrant agent of player, not equipped with a license, approval of the FIFA, is not authorized to operate any transfer (article 1st, point 2 of the payment). It is not easy to change the established order, several years ago of that. The monopoly of the FIFA and the institutions «specialized» contributed much to the limitation of access to this profession.

The third, the most vulnerable last and finally, is the financial criterion, support or substrate of approval.

It would like that the candidate, agent of player, deposit in a bank account open exclusively in Switzerland, an amount of money being equivalent to 200.000 francs Swiss, guarantee or of guarantee. The text specifies that this guarantee is irrevocable (article 9 of the payment).

Expensive, accessibility with the profession of agent of player costs so expensive that to date, only two Africans, of Egyptian nationality, namely, El SAWY Abdel Monem and MAHMOUD Galal, exert the trade, for Africa sparkling with youth and talents as regards football.

It is included/understood why, the citizens of the less affluent continents see their dream to become agents of player to break, to fly away and disappear as a smoke which goes up in the air. This is why, also, without guarantee, they agree to make the commissioned agent which we described above. This sum of money is devoted to a harmful competition against the agent laid off. Also, is essential it to reform this payment ; what would reduce the presence of the agents commissioned by the large European clubs whose activities are not far from resembling each other the draft.

These stages are however not obligatory. They rather indicate the arsenal or the diversity of strategies which the clubs of football installation in the process of internationalization of their commercial activities, that we call here, football business. L results that with the option of the technique of the recourse to the commissioned agent is juxtaposed also almost upstream the recourse to the service of the agent laid off of the FIFA. This one does not wait besides until a club requests it. It generally proposes the purchase of a player. In certain cases, these strategies seem more not to act as magic receipts for the majority of the clubs. One announces others more and more, like the creation of the centers of formation of the young players and the foreign direct investment, by the mechanism, either of acquisition of a holding, or of fusions acquisitions, or still of joint venture. It is what we try to see in the developments which follow.

1.B. PRESENCE ABROAD WITH INVESTMENT.

1.B.1. The creation of the centers of formation for young players :

confrontation enters the humanitarian and the business.

To the beginning of this study, we had been also given for task to check if the assertion according to which the clubs of football of the developed countries followed the traces of the multinational corporations and, with them, were established beyond the borders of their countries of origin, was authentic. Through the creation of the centers of formation for young players, located in African or Latin-American open ground, the objective of the clubs in any case seems to put up with a logic of transnationalisation of the activities. One would see from the start a team carrying out expenditure, often colossal in the species, to claim to draw no benefit from it. What it would be necessary to retain, it is that football has few ways to make itself too commercial. But it is worked with length of the days and with the passing of years vessels which ensure to him a continuous and not easily reversible presence in the ordinary business world. We dare to believe that the conversion of the legal structure of the majority of the clubs of association to nonlucrative goal into that of commercial companies made it possible to focus the attention of these new people morals on the advantages of the emergent markets. If « the European firms have to invest more on the emergent markets in order to draw advantage from their fast growth » (Jacquemin Alexis and Pench Lucio R., Editors, 1997, p. 181), the clubs of football did not have for their part need to be made there fold through supplications, as a long time as they had already included/understood and recognized the emergence of Africa and South America as regards football.

Since the experiment did not yet spread to it majority of the teams having certainly their junior teams with the seat even of the club, even of the centers of formation in the country -, the creation of a center of formation by a team, recognized rich, in a developing country starts with the French club of Paris-saint-Germain, before knowing another form with Ajax of Amsterdam.

1.B.2. The Paris-Saint-Germain and the Planet Champions International of

Ouagadougou.

The project of creation of the center of training of the young players launched by Paris-Saint-Germain has, strictly speaking, nothing similar to a project of foreign direct investment. It takes effect in 1997, when the news bulletin of the club diffuses the news below taken again : « Claude Roy prepares the future. Creator, at the beginning of season, of Planet Champions International, a center of formation in Burkina Faso, the Parisian sporting director and the club intend to make of Tunis a head of bridge of their policy of recruitment »

(PSG News-Review of press of Monday January 05, 1998).

Within the limits of the perception of the objectives of the creation of the center, it is released in filigree, the policy of recruitment. Transposed to the universe of football business, the objective of recruitment applies to the clubs what the strategy or the objective of research of the raw materials is worth or straightforwardly of the factors of production for the multinational corporations.

For this reason, it is necessary to compare with the route multinational corporations, the character of direct foreign investment of the center thus created by the Paris-saint-Germain. For that, MUCCHIELLI J.L (1998, p. 46), assistance to discover the characteristics of a direct investment :

1° a concept of control or being able of influence on the management of a foreign company ;

2° a transfer of complex competences (a technological unit and

3° a logic of production. And AAKER D.A (1998, p. 255) to increase : « Many firms test the desire to develop total strategies in the sight to take part indeed in competition ». The logic of production thus seems to be determining. It is thus when the delocalization aims, at the base, to make carry out with the company the economies of scale, which « have a power from the total point of view » (LEONTIADES James, 1984, pp. 30-37).

1.B.3. Quid if a club of football is a company ?

But, right now, it raises the question with the spirit inevitably to know if Paris Saint-Germain is a company, and still if the International center of formation Planet Champions is too. Professor Blanpain (1996, p. 25), taking again the opinion of the Prosecuting attorney Lenz, hears, him also, by companies «of the entities which carry on an economic activity, whatever their legal statute or their mode of financing. It is not required, add-it, that there is a goal of lucre. ». This definition has the merit to retain the essential element of a company, far from any formal legal structure : the exercise of an economic activity. It is done within the framework of a unit known as sometimes of production.

Taking into consideration this precision, it Appert that, without being a commercial company, with the legal direction of the term, the club Paris Saint-Germain, is not less one company, from an economic point of view. As a team of football, it regularly engages the players, to which it pays wages. On the market of the transfers, the PSG is also very active, either as salesman, or as purchaser of the players. This season, the only transfer of Anelka, among so much of others, cost him more than 25 million American dollars. It is besides for this reason which the European court of justice did not hesitate to establish that the exercise of the sports, as an economic activity in the direction of article 2 of the Treaty of Rome, concerned the field of application of the Community legislation (Blanpain, 1996, p. 21).

In the same way, professor Andreff Wladimir (2000, pp. 184-185) continues in the same direction by describing the economic activity of the clubs of football : «Certain clubs, writing-it, specialized in the training of players in order to supply the market of the professional players, and thus to release a source complementary to financing. »

It is that the new characteristic of the sport : « an economic activity like another, which makes it possible to include/understand the chump end abandonment of the principles founders of the Olympic ideal and a recombining of this field around the commercial values » (Borough J.F and Gouguet J.J, 1998, p. 18). All these developments accredit the thesis of professor Blanpain (1996, p. 25) according to whom « the clubs of football can be regarded as companies and the federations like associations of companies. » The version of companies recognized with the clubs is divided by professor Késenne Stefan (1996, p. 21) for which the practice of the sport constitutes an economic activity smell it that are needed two clubs (undertaken) to manufacture a match (the product).

By summarizing all the literature offered to us by the analysts, and by comparing it with the characteristics of the direct foreign investment pre-recalled, we can consider that the act posed by Paris Saint-Germain contains well realities of an investment.

1.B.3.a. the transfer of competences.

Center of formation, Planet Champions International was equivalent for the Parisian club to a unit (of the factors) of production specialized in the training of young players, who certainly would have allowed the PSG to regularly renovate his team, but also to feed the market of the transfers, either directly by these young people come from Burkina Faso, or by the old ones, thus replaced, by the African recruits. It was directed, at the beginning, by technical experts indicated by the PSG and receiving the orders directly him. There can one then claim to find the logic of the production to the profit of the PSG ?

1.B.3.b. The logic of production.

«A company can have commercial representations abroad, but it will be really multinational only if it produces whole or part of its products outside its own territory... the logic of the production, insists MUCCHIELLI, dominates. » (1998, p. 18). Admittedly, our effort will have consisted in establishing parallelism in the strategy of internationalization between the clubs of football and the multinational corporations. The concept ambiguity of production is not likely to facilitate the comparison.

Nevertheless, we think that the recruitment of the young players, like aim had by Paris Saint-Germain, approaches an activity of production, of which it would be, mutatis-mutandis, the corresponding elixir. Because, ultimately, which account here is more the finality of recruitment than recruitment itself. By this process, Paris hoped to improve its success what results in the expression « prepare the future » that reports the PSG News-, its results in various competitions and of course, its finances.

But, the choice of Africa is not a mere chance. If « players with weak remunerations coming from Africa » (Késenne S., 2000, p. 97), because of their talent, appreciated well and are sought by the European clubs, how much stronger reason on the spot they in Africa would cost, so that the clubs do not want to make of it the hinged plate of their economy of scale ! UDRY (1998) answers that « these young players buy for one anything ». And MUCCHIELLI (1998, p. 135) calls this strategy « the research of lower cost », for which a firm also can multinationaliser.

The strategy and the logic of production, at the base of the activity of the PSG in Burkina Faso, are detailed by NYS J.F (1999, 30): « The vast exodus of the sportsmen of the developing countries concerns currently more than 700 Brazilian players, and the clubs refine their strategies of recruitment by organizing true networks. In this respect, let us quote the project of the PSG to open a center of formation in Burkina Faso. This center would see becoming about 6.000 young 14 year old players, resulting from all the countries bordering on Burkina Faso. Only the best would emerge and go to Tunis ; they would be involved in the center of formation of the Hope of Tunis and would go then to Geneva, where the PSG signed a convention with Servette. Lastly, both or three players likely to evolve/move in the team first of the PSG would be found in Paris ». Questioned quite front on this project of investment, Roy Claude (1997), then directing sportsman of the club, began again that «we discovered extraordinary people, much of young players come from all the African continent and a particularly gifted attacker ».

  It should be added that the French club had conceived to reach several cooperation agreements with clubs of football of the countries as well developed as under development. Such is the case of the agreement of partnership which it planned to sign with the Hope of Tunis «in order to exchange technical experts and to locate the best African or even Asian players » (PSG News of January 05, 1998) which défraient the chronicle of the Tunisian sport more and more, in phase of professionalism (HTTP/www.ftf.org.tn/non_amateurs.htm).

In fact, the strategy of the PSG would be liked planetary or total. Thus in addition to the cooperation agreement with the Swiss club of Servette, the French club had in its pocket the project to conquer Brazil, where Ray, his former member, would be used to him as commissioned agent, but also China (PSG News of January 05, 1998). All these agreements with sporting goal are recut with the strategies which the multinational corporations concoctent and implement in order to be internationalized. Indeed, as MARTINEZ (1996, p. 71) recognizes it « in this process complexes, but increasingly obvious, the universalization of the international economy generated all the others : that of technology, the means of communication, the culture » and why not that of the sports !

Schematically, one can consider Paris Saint-Germain as the firm team related to formation and manufacturing units located a little everywhere in the world, either by cooperation agreements (strategic alliance, case of the agreement with Espérance of Tunis, conceived with an only aim of exchanging technical experts and of locating better African and Asian players), or by a kind of greenfield investment, i.e., the creation abroad of a had manufacturing unit with 100% by the head office (case of the International center Planet Champions, PC I).

But of recent information in our possession inform that Paris Saint-Germain would have sold the International center of formation Planet Champions in private Burkinabés and foreigners. In spite of that, Planet, which does not declare less association with humane vocation, in this acknowledged direction that it frames the désoeuvrés children, but talented, continuous to play the same function, that to train the young players come from a little everywhere from Africa.

It contacts managers of the prestigious clubs of Europe and proposes the best sportsmen on sale to them. The Planet Champions defectors are numerous, each season, to press the Parisian ground or other towns of France and rest of Europe, to make tests, which very often prove to be conclusive. The allowances of sale are copious and do not return all in the pockets of the families of the players concerned. Therefore, the role of a manufacturing unit of this center is well maintained, in spite of the fact that it does not depend any more of Paris Saint-Germain, his initiator and creator. Certain clubs of France, for example do not avoid any more combining their effort of recruitment of new players with Planet Champions. Such is the case of Saint-Etienne.

Paris-Saint-Germain

PCI

Espérance deTunis

Servette

The experiment tried by Paris Saint-Germain could be followed. But that of Ajax of Amsterdam appears to be an alternative for it, with the clear characteristics of a direct foreign investment. It is what we will show.

Paragraph 2. Projects of foreign direct investment.

Ajax of Amsterdam east one of the most prestigious European and world clubs of football. With a budget estimated at 250.000.000 of French francs (NYS J.F, 1998, p. 30), that is to say 1.500.000.000 of Belgian francs, this club thought of the idea of subscribing in the capital of the Belgian team of Germinal Beerschot of Antwerp (GBA), before becoming about it, at present, majority shareholder. He moreover created the African southern club of Ajax Cape Town with his own funds, in the sight to be present in various sporting competitions which proceed on the African continent, in addition to those organized at the level of the national federations of football.

2. A. The PARTICIPATION Of AJAX IN GERMINAL BEERSCHOT ANTWERPEN (GBA).

When the agency of information Reuter (Brussel, 02. 03. 1999) announces that « Ajax of Amsterdam agreed to become minority shareholder of the recent Belgian team of the first division, Germinal Beerschot Antwerpen (GBA) », the declarations of the leaders of two clubs in the columns of the same agency confirm the news. The director of GBA, Mr. Louis Of VRIES, made resound the echo of «a fantastic agreement ; it is what we sought », it added. While for its part, the president D `Ajax, Michael Van Praag, detailed a little the original reasons of such a business : « Ajax and GBA intend to exchange players and to cooperate for the preparation of the career of the young players. It is a cooperation agreement on all the possible levels, which will benefit our two teams. » However, certain characteristics suitable for the foreign direct investment are to be proven within the framework of the example given.

2.A.1. Percentage of 10%.

The case of Ajax recalls us all the doctrines on the foreign direct investment, i.e., the requirement of a participation to the amount of at least 10%. It acts, without excess of assertion, of a great first in the conversion of football into business, at the European level.

That does not prohibit to admit that on several occasions, the owners of certain clubs, in the search for elements of diversification of their incomes, often multiplied their actions in the capital of other companies.

But here, the characteristic, it is that it is a question of a team of football which subscribes in the capital of another team of football. What resembles a homogeneous integration, but in the sporting field.

Direct foreign investment, the participation of Ajax in GBA is indeed. Indeed, in addition to the fact that the Dutch leaders did not limit themselves to the idea of a simple financial placement in the Belgian club, they released the funds which, to the beginning of the co-operation, corresponded to the 31% of the capital of GBA.

2.A.2. The implication in the management of the foreign club.

And already, in the administrative structure, GBA does not control only any more the daily management of the club. Currently, Albert Verhaegen, Jos and Rene Snelden are the Belgian representatives of the direction of the GBA ; the other seats are occupied by the staff of Ajax of Amsterdam. Therefore, while implying itself in management, Ajax makes return his investment in the field of a direct foreign investment. Better than a simple intention, the investment of Ajax of Amsterdam in GBA makes date and takes the form of a vast process which will not stop there.

Thus after one year of shareholding, Ajax brought back his participation in 51%. And, since the 05.09.2000, he became the holder of the greatest number of actions in GBA, which, has from now on the statute of subsidiary company of Ajax. This last club did not want to proceed by the creation ex nihilo of a subsidiary company. This creation « be expensive and implements a very important managerial participation in time and energy ». (Keagan, W and De Leersnyder, J.M, 1994, pp. 132-133). At the beginning, the idea of a fusion acquisition seemed to prevail, because «it gets an immediate position on the market » (Ibidem). The effort of the medium of football to fully encase the steps with the multinational corporations in the conquest of the international markets is the resultant of «mondialized competition. »

(Perrot Etienne, 1999, p. 15).

Actually, this total competition, which is used as substrate with the metamorphosis of the sport in international business results in promoting all that increases the productivity, the direct investment. The exchange of the young players, and therefore, their transfer remain, in the sport one of the considerable sources of increase in the productivity and incomes. The professional sport became a great business, concluded Quirk James and Fort Rodney

(1999, p. 5).

2.B. AJAX Of AMSTERDAM AND AJAX CAPE TOWN.

Whereas a project of fusion was started by the leaders of some clubs of football of the Town of Cape with the team of Ajax Cape Town, this one would be leaning towards the proposal of the Dutch club of Ajax of Amsterdam to make of it a partner, who was going to become later a subsidiary company with 100%. Indeed, to believe of it the South-African press who reports information, a project of partnership was in way to be realized between Ajax of Amsterdam and Ajax course Town. The South-African team should be repurchased by that Dutch ; what would allow the latter « to play in the South-African championship of the first division and in the various African continental competitions » (www.ya.co.za/Ajax was forming year affiliated Squad in Cape Town).

The Last Hour of October 24, under the title « GBA : Africans tested », confirms the facts: « Ajax having woven close links with a Ghanaian club, a African southern formation and it... GBA, some young elements coming from the African continent will pass soon from the tests to Ekeren... ». However, by analyzing more closely this co-operation, it will have to be retained that it resembles itself one joint-venture more, considered like « creation in common with a foreign company of a mixed company located abroad and whose each partner holds the capital in the proportions of 50/50 or of 60/40 ». (MUCCHIELLI, COp cit., p. 92) rather than with an alliance strategic, conceived, it, «to combine an output and a capacity of marketing international «(Keagan and Al, COp cit., p. 132).

Always it is that the speed of the contacts between the clubs of football and their transformation into commercial companies would be highly likely to generate grinds strategic alliances, i.e., of associations between several independent companies which choose to conclude a project or a specific activity by coordinating competences, means and resources necessary » (Garrette, B and Dussauge P, 1995, p. 27). Since «often temporary, which is worth to him the qualification of Trojan horse » (BOZ Y and Al, 1989, p. 133), this alliance will in any case have enough success in the world considered as new target of expansion of football, namely, China and all Asia.

The after-World 2002 will thus have to be waited until. But, in the context of football, the comprehension of an international production and a marketing seems not to allure. However, we had already announced it higher than the idea to take part in the South-African championship and with various African competitions should not hide the commercial objectives of the project : to gain the cuts South-African and if necessary African, to recruit the best players (especially the most gifted young people), to profit from the redistribution of the rights of retransmission, in the event of a participation successful in these various continental competitions, to maximize the receipts by the operation of merchandizing, and naturally, to enjoy the allowances of transfers. All that could, to a certain extent, to take the clear form of the production and marketing international.

It is true that the similar investments in the world of football thus seem new and likely of meeting all the forest of problems which rise particularly from the international investments. The fast course of the analyzed cases brings back to surface the previous occupant dilemma of price of transfer. On the traditional assumption of the international trade of the goods or products, the sudden appearance of the question of price of transfer did not leave of all repis the researchers. How could it think and to be posed in the international investments relating to the football and how it would be solved ?

Section 2. THE PRICE OF TRANSFER IN THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE

BETWEEN THE CLUBS OF FOOTBALL OF THE SAME GROUP.

Paragraph 1. Definition and assumption of application.

« The price of transfer enters the companies belonging to a group of multinational corporations was one of the subjects of exposed on the tax, during several years, particularly in the United States of America. Nevertheless, considerable factors which have occurred in the interval of the years '80 and '90 made that this subject became one of most interesting and of most sensitive to all the companies. » (Chris Rolfe, 1993, V). Problem thorny in the various international forms of cooperation, as regards investments, certainly, the concept of price of transfer, known as professor Van Den Bulcke, returns resolutely to the concept of trade intra-group. This one, writes it, «consists in the international transactions (exports and imports) inside the multinational corporations (EM), i.e., of the companies which are located in at least two countries.

(Van Den Bulcke Daniel, 1982, p. 171). We could not have access to the statistical data which would have made it possible to measure the flow of these commercial transactions between the various members of the Ajax group, for example. But, nothing offers really the avoidance of such a problem.

In the group Paris Saint-Germain, it was a question of recruiting the young African players, to select most powerful by making them involve in the Tunisian club of Hope of Tunis. This stage, the second of a long process, more deserving would have gone to Switzerland to the club Servette from which two or three the best would leave, to go to join the mother team, it, refuge of rare pearls. According to the Special report of the emission Correspondent of Tuesday October 17, 2000 out of France 2, Paris Saint-Germain, after having joined deprived in the center of formation of Burkina, just before it is not withdrawn, would have actually recruited some defectors of the center Planet. On such an assumption, the local partners could be opposed to the purchase by the Parisian club of a player to an allowance which would not reflect real balance between supply and demand, because, as recognizes it professor Van Den Bulcke « it is very doubtful that the prices recorded for these transactions reflect simply supply and in a competitive market » (Ibidem). In the same way, the Last above mentioned Hour paid on the same columns as the young players coming from South Africa and of Ghana, where Ajax of Amsterdam had consolidated his presence, were to involve itself with the GBA, before joining Amsterdam. It is specified thus that, in the case of the partnership between clubs firms and clubs local partners, several scenarios can think, but especially as regards transfer of the young players.

Example : Ajax Cape Town, partner local of Ajax of Amsterdam, trains a player of particularly gifted football. Whereas the player is at the top of his talent, Ajax of Amsterdam requests his transfer in the mother team, by proposing in Ajax Cape Town an allowance that this last estimates not to correspond to the real allowance if the same transfer should be requested by a team of football not belonging to the Ajax group.

Much more, there is not only the local club which could complain about handling of the prices of transfers. The State of the country of the local club him also could be seen opposing a clever refusal to levy taxation of the incomes acquired with the club under rights of retransmission of the matches, merchandizing, sponsoring.

On the assumption of a control of the management of the local club by a personnel expatriate, completely dedicated to the defense of the interests of the club firm, this last can dissimulate the exact value of the incomes of the club and thus succeed in making them escape the tax department country from the partner team.

How could one solve such a conflict all while maintaining the investment ?

Before answering this question, one can put the question to know if the transfer of the players can cause the debate on the price of transfer. Coopers and Lybrand (1993, p. 4) retort that « there are several types of transactions intra-group. They include the transfers of the tangible and intangible goods, of provisions of services and finances, but also the agreements of leasing. ». « The important thing, insist, it is to note that it is the substance which will always so yes determine or not the transaction took place. » Thus, even if the player, as a man, must be regarded as extra-commercium, its transfer showed lately that it was indeed about a commercial deal, that the clubs belonging to the same group could also practice.

Paragraph 2. The resolution of the question of the price of transfer in this sector.

.

It is not easy to circumvent with hundred percent the mischievousness of the multinational corporations, being given, that once a way their is closed, they succeed in opening of them one or others. In the sporting sector, and in particular of the football, prudence would recommend that the States of the countries hosts put in place adapted legislations, dialog with the continental FIFA and confederations, to which would join the national federations of football, which would regulate the market of international transfer of the players and that of the rights of retransmission of the sporting events. This way, the clubs of football could straightforwardly be obliged to adopt the legal form of one of the commercial companies envisaged by the national legislation. Starting from such a formula, one would control better the activity of the clubs which should not be limited even any more to the transfer of the players like such, but in more upon their engagement, with the respect of the legal provisions on the minority and those relating to work of the minors of age.

Chapter II. INDUCED OPERATIONS.

In the induced operations, defined on page 14, we in particular quoted the rights of retransmission of the matches and other sporting events, the merchandizing and the sponsoring (which we will not study here).

Section 1. RIGHTS OF RETRANSMISSION : THE BASKET OF THE CENTURY

All the battle of the leading authorities of the two last decades football will have consisted in introducing the commercial aspect into the sport, whereas in the United States, Sports and Money had convolé in right weddings for a long time.(QUIRK J. and STRONG R., 1999, pp. 50-51). Any lord, any honor, takes again a French proverb. Football owes a great part of its transformation to JOAO HAVELANGE. And as Octave which exclaimed

«Acta east confabulated », the Brazilian one, octogenarian currently, could, also, by hearing the records of the rights to him retransmission to push a ouf relief : « the part is played, I made a success of my challenge. With you to preserve the assets of them and to increase the receipts by them ».

What is then the rights of retransmission?

Paragraph 1. Definition of the rights of retransmission.

Free, or relatively such, since years, football lost during last decades, its exemption from payment to become expensive by predicting an access more and more skimped. Such is the direction that it is necessary to give to the remarks of two persons in charge for the chain of Italian television Rai, mentioned again in the newspaper It Plate-24, of June 17, 1998: «Football is too expensive». In support of their exclamation, Stefano Balassone and Vittorio Emiliani make statement of expenditures carried out by their chain for acquisition into 1997 of the rights of retransmission of sporting events. On the whole, they had spent the sum of 395 billion Italian liras, whereas three years rather, the same rights rose to 252 billion, before reaching the unimaginable bar of 457 billion in 1998. However, in 1997, on the total expenditure of the chain Spoke for the sport, football absorbed 300 billion liras. Re-entries, as for them, having been able to reach only 100 billion liras.

Therefore, the biddings of rights of retransmission are able to make fall in bankruptcy certain undertaken which resort to it, at the time when, the sport, in its new commercial tunic makes run even those which were seldom interested in it.

The example of the chain of Rai television all in all offers to release the tracks of a definition suitable for the group words, right of televisual, audio-visual or radiophonic retransmission. Also, could one define the rights of retransmission as being the prices paid by an economic, public or deprived operator, sector of the media to the organizers of the events and spectacles sporting, of which they are owners of right, in order to retransmit them by way of their bodies to the targeted public.

Paragraph 2. Short historical background.

The sale of the rights of televisual or radiophonic retransmission is neither a recent reality nor suitable for football. The literature which was leaning there announces that other sporting disciplines, like football discovered the misadventures of them well before and owe their prosperity of lately only with it. Such is the case «of the American clubs basic-ball which misent only on the sale of the rights of retransmission TV and radio operator buildings like significant sources their incomes» (Ross F.S, 1999, p. 98). Old, the relation professional Sports and media are also. For television, for example, BOROUGH J.F (1998, p. 209) announces the emergence of commercial relations between television and the sport to the United States, in the Thirties, and in Europe, in the Sixties, then their development in the Seventies. In Africa, except for some country where television dates from the period which followed independence immediately (case of the Democratic Republic of Congo), the majority of the countries had chains of television only in the current of decade 80 ; so that the relation between television and the sport is only recent. In a study recently devoted to the American professional Sports, QUIRK James and STRONG Rodney analyze for a long period the reports/ratios thus evoked. « In 1960, the incomes of the national league of football coming from the media were 3 million American dollars and the American association of football gained of them 1,6 million. About 1980, after the fusion of the national league and the American association of football, the incomes coming from the media for the two combined leagues rose to 167 million American dollars. In 1990, they reached 948 million American dollars... In 1997, the National Basketball Association (NBA) signed a contract of retransmission of the matches for one 4 years duration with national chains NBC and TNT, under the terms of which these chains will pay 660 million American dollars per annum to the league without taking account of the amounts to have by local televisions. (QUIRK James and STRONG Rodney, 1999, pp. 30-31).

«This marriage of convenience is due to the competing nature of the market of the media, which, continue the authors, is explained by the fact that the capacity had by television or the radio lies in fact only in the capacity to offer to the public what it wants».

Paragraph 3. Rights of retransmission and conquest of the sporting events

international.

The passage of a logic of monopoly based on information with a logic of competition based on the distraction developed the financial relations between the sport and television. With regard to football, it should be recognized that the development of the world structures of this sporting discipline, its effect over the continents and the States which one could name international division of work allowed the repercussion of an echo beyond waitings that this sport could generate. Quickly, engagements of the States, through their national teams and their clubs, in various competitions put them more and more in front of a line of sight, namely, the desire pressing of the supporters and the fanatics tending to look at or remote the matches on line that the protagonists deliver themselves.

In these times, it is sure that public television covered these events within the limits of its technological capacities. And the cover of the sporting events was not paying. «The multiplication of the chains in the Eighties, the appearance of a private sector, differentiation between free nonencrypted hertzian televisions and general practitioners and diffusers cabled, targeted and with toll reveal an obligation of result. From now on, the function of programming consists in proposing the sporting emissions preferred by the public at the hours when the potential audience is strongest.

This research will generate a fight between diffusers to acquire the rights of retransmission of the events, source of inflation of the costs. On the market of the sporting retransmissions are confronted a request for acquisition of the rights of diffusion of the events by the chains and an offer of these same rights by the sporting organizers (clubs, leagues, national and international federations, CIO) » (Andreff, Nys and Bourg, 1987, p. 11 and S.).

The latter develop strategies of sale of their products. The private of the countries developed in general, and European chains in particular, face a hard competition for the acquisition of the rights of the retransmissions. And benefitting from the liberalization of the world markets of the audio and televisual press, they realized of nature still unexploited by the autochtones of the advantages which the spectacles of football in the rest of the world offer.

This is why, strong of their technological superiority, in Africa for example, these chains are practically the only ones to retransmit the important sporting events which proceed on the continent. We quote to this end, Champions' League African of football, of which the exclusive rights of retransmission were always bought by French television International Canal France (CFI). This chain, in its turn, reassigns some, realizing payment of important money sums, the diffusion with the other public or private chains national. In light, it is constant to note that current football was more internationalized thanks to the similar movement of the rights of retransmission.

Indeed, the deregulation of the market of the media of the Eighties revealed a private sector of television. This sector was to be essential at all costs, by exploiting advisedly the gaps or the negative side of the public chains. It especially innovated with a new marketing based on the proposal of a grid of capable programs to attract the most possible televiewers to him. Thus, it had to be covered the emissions that the public would like so much to see. In this direction, QUIRK and Al, (1999, pp. 28-29) let know that «television collects its audience if it presents programs that public wants to look at (and look at more than the programs which is presented to him by other stations), before adding that there are few industries where competition is more intense than industries of media and in particular television. »

And televisions discovered in football this sport which collects the most audience. Thus, «during the decade 1970-1980, football occupied from 10 to 15% of the grids of programs, 21% of the sporting emissions in 1996 with 518 hours, that is to say more than in 1959 with a score of hours » (BOROUGH, 1998, p. 226).

3.A. International opening of the rights of retransmission

in football.

Between the exemption from payment and the payment of the right of diffusion and audio-visual and radiophonic retransmission, several stages passed, reassures Nys (COp cit.). But that which makes date in football starts with the dedication of the monopoly of the FIFA and its associations connected on the production and the sale of the sporting events. Indeed, the statutes of the FIFA stipulate that the organizations of football are owners « exclusive rights of diffusion and retransmission by some means that it is, on line, remotely or in short, relating to the demonstrations subjected to their jurisdiction ». (Article 49 Statutes of the FIFA). However, the national and international economic operators know that the sporting events are able to mobilize the most televiewers, among whom potentials customers of their goods. In fact, there is invisible superposition of pressure : the companies would like to buy advertizing spaces on the chains of television the day of great events sports, and in their turn, the chains are hustled on a market where only the organizers of the aforesaid spectacles are offerers. In front of competition, the higher bids are only of setting.

In addition, it was noted that the certainty that the acquéreuses chains of television of the rights of retransmission have to gain in advertizing receipts or royalties for use and concession of use of these same rights on the profit jurisdiction of the spectacle is not an obviousness.

This is why, chains, knowing that the great meetings of football which proceed on line and which oppose the clubs which have the reputation to produce good spectacle or which count in their manpower of the player-stars, allure the public of the whole world, do not hesitate to appear among highest offerer.

In Africa, the same scenario occurs. For lack of African local chains of television very specialized and thus powerful, one still finds the European ones with the wicket, to acquire the rights of retransmission of the sporting events organized by the African Confederation of football.

Therefore, on the basis of the monopoly recognized to them, on the sporting events, the clubs, the federations national, continental and international of football always seek to sell the rights of retransmission with televisions, always many to be presented as purchasers.

3.B. Evolution of the rights of retransmission.

The monopoly of the sporting institutions on the demonstrations which they organize helped to plan on the level as well interns as international the expansion of the market of the rights of retransmission. It found in the competition and the liberalization of the markets this enzyme which makes catalyze and accelerate the place that they currently occupy in the financing of football. By reading the newspapers, the news with the radio or on television, the amounts of rights of retransmission does not cease gallopping. Taking the only example of the World cup of football, quantify them which reproduce here BOROUGH and GOUGUET (1999, p. 10) show that the prices of these goods, genuine basket for football, are spectacularly enormous.

Table IX. Rights of retransmission of nine editions of the World cup in million and of billion (*) American dollars.

In conclusion, the rights of retransmission became so impossible to circumvent with the football which they push more and more the richest clubs with being present on all the continents in order to take part in the sporting events, as organizing and or Co-organizing in the hope to profit from it too. The clubs, by the strategies which we traversed know that nobody is able to stop football and the passion which it causes. The fight currently centered on doping and other anti-values shows at which point, the social role of this sport, if it is not preserved, risk to harm its commercial side. This other aspect remains however very tentacular in the merchandizing.

Section 2. MERCHANDIZING.

Model of financing recently introduced on the sporting scene, the merchandizing makes its appearance in the current of the Eighties, but more still since 1990. We give of it the definition, then will see how it is particularly effective like source of receipts in football, at the local and international level.

Paragraph 1. Definition

By merchandizing, it is necessary to hear « a strategy which consists in selling a whole catalog of varied products with the emblem of the club (clothing, linen, toys, portfolios for child, bags, watches, perfumes, etc » (Andreff W., 2000, COp cit., p. 184). It results from the awakening by the leaders and managers of the affluent professional clubs that the reputation and the notoriety of the club, to acquisition of which the players and the supporters contribute, can be sources of commercial receipts some. Moreover, in certain cases, a good handle of economic operators could already exploit the label of principal local formations without that not being regarded as an illicit act.

ANDREFF translates better the intention of the leaders of the professional clubs, in term of advantages that the technique would get to them : « They can attract important commercial receipts by exploiting themselves, on a great scale, the image and the notoriety of the club... The importance of the strategy is measured by receipts which it reports to certain clubs. Thus, in 1997, it accounts for 10% of the receipts of Milan AC, 13% in Tottenham, 22% with Newcastel, 34% in Manchester United. In this club, specifies Andreff, the merchandizing reached the same weight as the receipts with the counter in 1998 » (Ibidem).

With the international scale, the merchandizing has all the characteristics of a way towards « the internationalization of the marketing strategies of the clubs or the leagues » (BAYLE and DURAND, 2000, COp cit., p. 154).

In preparation for the evolutions recently noted as regards merchandizing, one would tend about one time oùles clubs firms will seek to seal international alliances with foreign economic operators on the one hand, and clubs of other countries, on the other hand. With the first, it is about the establishment of the agreements tending to ensure promotion and marketing outside the colors and emblems of large teams of football.

It is clear that these agreements will be of commercial nature and thus signed with the help of payment of the sums discussed as a preliminary. The tradesmen would not engage since insofar as, it is convinced of the notoriety and the undeniable reputation of the club partner in his jurisdiction. Thus, the tradesmen of a country could sell products which belong to him, but that it condescends to provide before their setting on sale to the colors of the foreign team.

With the seconds, the objective remains the same one, but the different manner. The local teams will have to seem the purchasers of the jackets and other particular features characterizing the club firm. Four years ago, the German club of Borussia Dortmund was considered in the medium of the fanatics of the Congolese team of Vita Club the ancestor of the latter. The hyphen was simply the colors of two clubs, green (lemon-yellow) and black. Blow, one noted in Kinshasa, the sale in great quantity by tradesmen of the objects raising the colors of the local club but at the same time of Borussia.

Lastly, which seems more obvious to be conceived, it is that the foreign subsidiary companies of the multinational corporations held by the businessmen, patrons and investors in the professional sport would be with the front of the international radiation of the strategy of the merchandizing. Indeed, these local manufacturing units will be able easily to insert in their marketing the merchandizing, in this direction which they would manufacture of the objects, their products with the colors of the teams and characters sports who are sponsored by their head office. This that the examples are already legion, in the automobile sport is not. Michael Schumacher gets dressed with the colors with Ferrari, product of the Fininvest group, pertaining to the Italian tycoon Silvio Berlusconi.

The stake remains of size and the enticing prospects. In the same way, controlling nearly four clubs, namely Glasgow Rangers, Slavia Prague, Vicence and AEK of Athens, (European Commission, Directorate-General X, 1998, p. 7) (the European sporting model) English National Investment Company could open units of distribution in the jurisdiction of each of four teams to market its products with the colors of its sporting branches and to redistribute the receipts to them according to a percentage to determine.

Paragraph 2. Merchandizing like one of the consequences

internationalization of football.

In addition to the rights of retransmission, the receipts due to the clubs of football thanks to the merchandizing are always increasing. That encourages the already rich clubs to obtain the clubs of fans throughout the world. Those deal with the maintenance of the reputation and the public image of their team. From where, the international clubs shops.

SECOND PART (II).

INTERNATIONALIZATION OF FOOTBALL :

STAKES AND OUTLINES.

Many things were known as on the economic stake [(Andreff W, 1987), (Noll Roger G., Zimbalist Andew, Edit., 1997) and social (Borough and Gouguet, 1998)] sport, but more particularly of football. We will not take them again, with the risk of us enliser in rejecting repetitions. On the other hand, the advisability of examining the question compared to the developing countries, receivers of investments even in the sporting sector seems to us thus offered. Also, proves it adequate to think in a first chapter of the impact of the economic internationalization of football in the developed countries, then in a second with his contribution with the developing countries, in particular, those of Africa.

CHAPTER I : IMPACT OF THE ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION OF

FOOTBALL ON THE COUNTRIES DEVELOP.

To avoid any confusion on developed the countries term, we would like to specify by there the countries in which are originating the majority in the rich clubs, agents of the internationalization of football.

The evaluation of the real impact of the spectacle football on the economy is the sharp controversies object between economists even if one cannot deny that its economic weight is considerable. Constant in its reasoning, Kurscheidt (2000, p. 48) continues, in connection with sports in their globality which «the modern markets of the sport represent thus a true sector of growth in the national economy of the industrialized countries with diversified structures, commercial interdependences extended within the private sector and complex relations with respect to the public sector».

More and more, one agrees to raise that an important distinction must be made between two types of impact studies : The first, microeconomic, is based on the analysis costs benefit. (Andersen, 1999 ; Burgan, B. & Mules, T. 1992, pp. 700-710 ; Crompton, H., 1995, pp. 14-35 ; Dubi, C., 1996, pp. 88-92 ; Yoshioka, c.f. & Al, 1991, pp. 1-2 ; Késenne, S. & Task, Mr., 2000, pp. 342-365) and the second, macroeconomic are worried to know what the economic activity or monetary flows generates by project or which importance an industry like the sector of the sport in general has it on the national or regional economy (Késenne, 1999, pp. 29-39).

We, on our side, rather focus our analysis on what the strategy of international decentralization of the economic activities of the clubs of football would be able to give birth to as well in the countries as near the local clubs. By those admittedly the players as well as the members of the personnel always, by effect of drive, directly or are indirectly reached.

At the beginning, it should be recognized that in its primary meaning, the sport can be defined as « all forms of physical activities which, through a participation organized or not, aim at the improvement of the physical and psychic condition, the development of the social relations or obtaining results in competition of all levels. » (Article 2 of the European Charter of the Sport of the Council of Europe).

For this reason, the sport fulfills some functions, namely : educational, of public health, social, cultural and ludic. « Considered under the economic angle, the sport represents a sector under development increasing. Sporting sponsoring generates 15 billion dollars, the sale of the rights of retransmission TV 42 billion and the sale tickets 50 billion. » (European Commission, Directorate X, 1998, p. 6). The European sport accounts for 36% of this trade, continues the study of the European Commission. In Europe, the respective share of the Member States most populated in this trade is of : Germany (30%), United Kingdom (22%), Italy (17%), France (15%). In Europe, the sport counts among the economic branches of industry which generate employment among the young people. A joint study, undertaken by professors Task and Késenne (1998, p. 98), reveals that the activities of the sport in Flanders generated for Belgium at least 70.697 established posts.

The economic internationalization of football goes beyond the positive aspects enumerated above as example. By it, one can in particular add some others. There are in particular the quotation of the clubs out of purse, the reinforcement of the ro^le of the industry of the sport, the potential increase in the investment as well in the countries developed as in the developing countries, the possibility of controlling, of even fighting against the clandestine immigration of sporting origin, the creation and the repair of the stages of football, the creation of new jobs for thousands of young footballers and the labor still to unemployment.

Section 1. THE QUOTATION OF THE CLUBS OUT OF PURSE.

Paragraph 1. carried

The entry of the economic operators in football, like patrons or investors largely contributed to football to change configuration. It led, said Andreff, so that the value of the credits becomes a strategic variable of their management. The clubs of football were constrained, by need, to manage itself like trade undertakings, even like multinational corporations. As well on the procurement plan as on that of financing, several innovations were noted in the management of the rich clubs of Europe. Quotation out of purse, by imitation of the multinationals, passes for most spectacular.

The history of football informs that this play would have from England. Eh well, just like for the ball, it is in England that was born quotation out of purse from the clubs of football. Tottenham, club of London opened the way in 1983. Since this time, until now, one does not count less than twenty teams dimensioned out of purse in England. And by effect of contagion, several clubs of Europe are also with dimensions out of purse : Ajax of Amsterdam, in May 1999 ; in Italy, Lazio of Rome ; in Denmark, the FC Kopenhagen belongs to four other teams which experienced the stock exchange adventure.

In Germany, the central Bank even requested the quotation of funds of placement having of the participations in the eighteen German clubs of the first division. For its part, the Italian club of Fiorentina launched, in collaboration with the bank of businesses Merril Lynch, a bond at 10 years for a total amount of 70 billion liras, loan guaranteed by the future receipts of the subscriptions. And, in compensation, Merril has an option of 10% on the capital of the club. Seen under this aspect, it is more possible to believe only only the nationals of the country originating in the club will be shareholders. Far from there, on the contrary. Way impérialement is thus impérialement led to the entry of the investors of all the edges of the world.

It is thus undeniable, concludes Mattys Nico (1999, p. 28) that football became a true industry. The clubs are overlapping in the economic life and are managed like true companies. The competition remains certainly the center of the concerns but, in orbit, one finds a chain increasingly longer of money, power and celebrity. Universalization, large accelerator of the increase in the international exchanges, « tends to create an integrated world economy, in which competitions and markets include the whole ground... resources, which until there were largely national or unexploited, become internationally mobile while the national economies become increasingly interdependent » (Mathieu Edouard, 1999, p. 7).

Like other companies, that of the football which one would believe to be located only on a given territory, is currently worried to make sign of life on the international level. It sells its product to with it : the club. Its incomes are diversified more and more : sale of the tickets, they found in other sources, an unquestionable means of economic and international expansion of football.

Let us quote in particular sponsoring, the merchandizing, the rights of retransmission. Referring to the European clubs of football, Andreff W (2000, pp. 182 and S) stresses that the majority of the European professional clubs do not have any more the structure of financing of the model Spectateurs- subsidies sponsors room. The current model of financing is increasingly founded on four sources : Media gone tycoons merchandizing.

Paragraph 2. Evolution of the football dimensioned out of purse.

« Contrary to the majority of the actions, the actions of football are often an investment with sentimental connotation. They are especially the private individuals who are ready to leave no stone unturned to acquire actions of their favorite club » (Mattys NR., 1999, p. 29).

With course terms, the stock exchange of foot fluctuates mainly with the liking of the results of the teams. A promotion in higher division, obtaining a national title or the engagement of a player of quality is likely to make assemble the course. For this purpose, the French economic daily newspaper the Platform (July 1, 1998) brings back the explanation of a stockbroker on the variation of the action of the Danish club Brondby : « It is the value of Sand (player of the national team of Denmark) which goes up, after the victory over Nigeria. It seeks to leave Brondby and that will make a large money re-entry to the club ». Contrary, recorded performances in a successive way are generally likely to make péricliter the course counters them. The internal conflicts between leaders and players or the suspicion of use of the doping substances are not less devastators of the optimistic forecasts stuck to the stock exchanges of the teams dimensioned out of purse.

This description of quotation out of purse of the clubs maintains in better position the rights of retransmission and the merchandizing. The majority of the clubs exploit a club shop where one can one can find gadgets in all kinds with the colors of the club. In addition to Manchester name which evokes the merchandizing, Anderlecht, according to the Last Hour (of October 24, 2000, p. S 4) would have also realized, only during the first three quarters of the year 2000, of important receipts estimated at 37,2 million Euros while resorting to the merchandizing. Therefore, the aspect merchandizing, for certain clubs as Manchester so much took gigantic proportions which it exceeds even the national borders.

Section 2. THE REVELATION OF THE DERIVATIVES COMMERCIAL OF THE TRANSFER.

It is certain that the revelation of the aspects outrageusement mercantile related to the transfer of the young players constitutes an advantage to allot to the internationalization of football. Without removing the practice of the transfer in football, the legal and political authorities European require the improvement of it, with in particular the abolition of the exorbitant allowances and the extension to the players of the economic rights of which the other categories of European workers enjoy. The recourse to doping largely worried the leaders of all the countries lately. The escapades of Maradona, controlled positive at the time of the world cup of football 1994 in the United States, could not be put any more out of night light, thanks to the internationalization of the foot. For more details, you defer to the chapter 1st first part.

Section 3. OTHER IMPACTS TO BE ANNOUNCED.

Paragraph 1. The industry of the sport.

As the investors of the industrial world entered football, it is clear that temptation to launch new products will be increasingly large, in this direction which industry will follow the movement of football and will precipitate to satisfy the new request. It will be invested fully in the acts of management and administration being able to lead it to build or renovate stages of football. What is important as well for it for the local population.

Paragraph 2. Internationalization of football and investment.

The importation of articles of sport and the foreign investment in the industry which manufactures these articles increase the quality and the variety of the products placed at the disposal of the sportsmen and other people. They are thus advantageous for the host countries. At the European level, the delocalizations are not announced yet. On the other hand, the report/ratio of the Council of Europe of 1995 notes that multinationals delocalized their production in developing countries by the means of an international subcontracting, in particular for clothing and the shoes. The contribution is not not very enormous there.

Paragraph 3. Internationalization like means to fight against the clandestine immigration of the sportsmen of the Third World.

Report carried out by the journalist of the chain of television France 2 in their emission « Special correspondent of October 24, 2000 » showed that a great number of clandestine from Africa, of South America, Asia just like of Eastern Europe are found in this state because of the sport. Solicited in their countries of origin by

«false impressarii », they unload in Europe with the firm insurance to carry out a profitable career of footballer in such or such other prestigious club. However, as it is often the case, it arrives that the famous intermediaries do not follow any more the evolution of the insertion of these young defectors so much in the club proposed but in the Western company. And, in the worst case, once the test is not conclusive in the new team, the young people, always dreaming of a possible chance to evolve/move in Europe, rock ipso facto in clandestinity.

However, while supporting, then positively helping the initiatives of the clubs of football and why not of other sports be opened outside, and in particular with the developing countries, of two things one : either, the immigration of young players of these countries towards Europe within the framework of football, because is made legal possible through the transfer or the loan, or they evolve/move on the spot but in the company football.

It is an enormous advantage which there is place to support truly by financing, cooperation agreements even between the developed country and developing countries, instead of attacking simply the facts without damming up the causes of them. Payoke Association évertue to militate itself against the exploitation by certain European companies of the labor of the clandestine immigrants. That is well, but is not enough. We thus suggest that a new topic of debates takes account of this aspect of things and offers the prospects for a study able to enrich our proposal, with regard to the sport, and in particular football.

CHAPTER II. IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.

In their work, Noll Roger G and Zimbalist Andrew (1997, p. 55) include a generally widespread opinion that «the sport is a good investment, because it generates definitely positive benefit for the community ».

This impact will have to be analyzed as well on the level of general economic policy as to that of the clubs.

Section 1. FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICY.

To put the question of the impact of the internationalization of football business, as we drew up the dial of it, about the developing countries amounts differently reformulating the problems of the founded good of universalization and the foreign direct investments on this category of country. Several debates already took place and some are still held on the subject, during which exposed brilliances were made. The literature which in fate is certainly advised for reading. But, we do not return there here.

« Africa Subsaharienne entered the 20th poor century, a strongly colonized area. While entering at the 21st century, much things changed. Education took speed and the life expectancy increased... Since the middle of the years 1990, of the signs of a good economic management appeared, with the increase in the incomes and the level of exports... Except for the Republic of South Africa, the average of the national income per capita is 315 $ in 1997. The total income of the area is not as important as that of Belgium to it only. » (The World Bank, 2000, pp. 7-8).

This severe diagnosis of the most important world institution of development and financing joined the exhortation of the Secretary General of the United Nations inviting the African countries to diversify their exports.

However, in several connections, the sport was often not regarded as an activity able to generate incomes and to allow the creation of jobs. For the World Bank, quoted by economic Problèmes (October 2000, p. 16) to increase competitiveness and to diversify the economies is a field to which Africa must give the priority if she wants to assert the place which returns to him at the new century. This is why, we suggest that it also counts on the sport, by controlling the sector. It is likely to create jobs and to increase the income of the inhabitants, those which work there, in first.

Paragraph 1. The African player, raw material of high quality.

By making international transfer of the foreign players a market of first recourse, the European clubs which by no means exclude Africa from their field of recruitment, showed in more than one way that the African sportsman was able to make prowesses as many as any other player of football of the world. By opening centers of formation in Africa or targeting Africa like pool of recruitment, the European clubs of football are spirit to show how much it is urgent for the African States to frame young people, from which they could really hope to obtain receipts coming from allowances of transfer.

In addition to the regulation of the market of the players already on the level of the States, the spacing of the minors not émancipés in this trade must become a guiding principle. This way, the countries, seedbeds, would control better the actions of the semi-official recruiters or the managers of the young children of which they do not follow any more the evolution to Europe, especially if the test in the team of north were not concluding thereafter.

The States thus have the mission of multiplying the creation of the centers of formation for the young players ; what would grant unquestionable advantages to them : a good education of the young people, morally high and their preparation to defend the national identity as players of the national team or in the capacity as professional players transferred or lent with the help of a right allowance.

But the internationalization of football can contribute to attract new investors. A firm which needs to launch new businesses in a developing country could be used for itself of a popular team of football local to make known itself.

In this context, the initial goal remains the conquest of commercial space considered to be profitable, but the sport can become sesame about it opens to me. In end of the accounts, one will arrange with the account of this firm and the great advantage of the nation two investments : the first, it is the traditional business with all the benefits that that can comprise, the second, the assumption of responsibility or the repurchase of the local team.

Even without the presence of the firms, the partnership between clubs of different nationalities is likely to promote investments in the sector of television, in this direction which the new team made up could with the fur of the years being author, certainly with her adversaries, of important sporting events whose retransmission will have attracted chains of television and radio.

The State would gain there by creation of employment, the private or public operators, but also by taxes. Therefore, the African sportsman must be perceived like an agent of the economic and social development of the continent. Isolated cases are already quoted in example. Ethiopic Gebré Sélassié, several Olympic champion of Athletics, saved of many risks of the life its many compatriots, by engaging them in its own companies.

Paragraph 2. Need for adapting the legislation governing football.

In their majority, the African clubs of football have the form of non-profit-making association. That reinforces their tendency to be managed by people who are there often thorough like better fanatics rather than like better managers.

In this case, the States should in general re-examine their legislations on the sport and football in particular. The clubs of football will have, on the level of their legal structure, to have all the characteristics of commercial companies so as to facilitate the partnership with the rich clubs of Europe. At the time when the European clubs speak about quotation out of purse the imperfect one, it is nevertheless challenging to imagine the present and the future of our teams of football. They should even obtain clean stages.

The teams like the A.S Vita Club and Daring Club Motema Pembe de Kinshasa can have more than one million active fanatics. If it should be admitted that by a technique of suitable commercial management (joint stock company with limited responsibility) each one or even the third only has the quality of shareholders, it is sure that they would not miss money.

A flexible legislation, which envisages for example the possibility with the national clubs of amalgamating or of concluding from the agreements of partnership either between them, or with foreign clubs which have the means of them would be an unquestionable opening towards foreign investments in this matter.

For Europe, the reinforcement of the co-operation in this matter, could constitute an effective measure of fight against the clandestine immigration of the populations of the south towards its countries, through the various sports. Several countries included/understood this stake, but complain about the cruel lack of means to sit clubs with socio-economic orientation.

In democratic Republic of Congo, gouvernment in place comes to sign many cooperation agreements with in particular Italy for courses of management of the sport and sporting education of which should profit soon from the Congolese young people. In the same way, it is more and more a question of the creation of an Academy of the sports, to prepare the young people with the various Olympic and different competitions. Without the installation of a good policy of management, the raised hopes will be moulted to désepoir some.

Section 2. IMPACT OF ECONOMIC INTERNATIONALIZATION

FOOTBALL ON THE CLUBS OF THE CONTINENT.

The internationalization of the European clubs of football has an unquestionable impact on the African clubs.

Paragraph 1. On the level of the management of the clubs : fonctionnalisation of the practice of

football.

It is true that the poverty of the continent fatally reflects on all the social organizations y established. The clubs of football, in Africa, do not escape from it. The majority of them are non-profit-making associations. Their principal incomes come from or the gift State grants of certain skilful economic operators. The sale of the tickets, the placement or the merchandizing pay very little to these teams. Seldom, the transfers of better their players profit to them.

The players do not have the same marginal utility as everywhere in Europe. They can not be paid, because, the leaders think that the player of a large team seeks initially success. They are involved with clothing of fortune which always does not translate the real state of finances of the team.

It is frequent that the teams engaged in the national or African competitions do not move, for lack of money to pay tickets of plane. Per moment, the leaders become about it owners from the point of view of benefit only in the event of a juicy transfer from it. Description can be even longer. What is true for the clubs, is also for the national federations.

Managed in majority by people with doubtful manners, the national federations of African football quickly rocked in place of influence to be able it in place. It is enough to observe the fight for the succession with the head of a federation like that to football. It is not only rough, but also tearing and nauseating at the same time. Through the complete reading of this study, it is permissible to know some, partly, the lower parts of the tables. This thus pushes us to insufflate a new way of as well directing the clubs as the federations so that economic internationalization of football serf not of them like a source of fortune for the clubs firms without equitable counterpart to these clubs partners or subsidiary companies. First of all, it should be admitted that on the level of the clubs entered alliances with foreign partners, the budgets are not overdrawn any more. In the case of GBA, the importance of the acquisition of a holding of Ajax are understood as an oxygen puff that sought GBA so much. « The club of the from Antwerp metropolis knew serious financial problems and will be able to thus count on the financial support of Dutch general public. The 120 million liability which the Germinal one knew will be compensated by the sales of Snonck Moons and the contribution of new capital. » [www.sports24.be/foot/2000/germinal.html.)].

It goes without saying that, like in the case of multinational corporation, the new contributions which they bring in the new manufacturing units play an often positive part there.

Also, in order to ensure the best followed management of the agreements and their repercussions financial, the clubs will have to be managed like trade undertakings. So that the leader to the player, everyone feels concerned by the life of the club, i.e., it is regarded from now on as a true company obeying the economic laws and principles. With such an evolution, the modes of financing of the clubs firms will be able to produce the same effects with the local clubs. Those could become truths places of recruiting for tens, even of hundreds of unemployeds.

Paragraph 2. Imitation of the model of financing of the European clubs of football.

2.1. Experiment of the Merchandizing by the three large Congolese clubs of Kinshasa : HAVE Vita Club, cd. Motema Pembe and HAVE Dragons.

Engaged in one of the three cuts of Africa of the clubs in 1997, the three teams of the capital gained many victories over their adversaries respected on the continent and became the targets of the trade undertakings of Kinshasa. With each stage of the competition, the committees of support asked the supporters each team to wear clothes to the colors of the club. The multitude of the emblems of the kinoises teams to each African meeting sanctioned the research of the sporting and fanatic public of the aforesaid clubs. Here are which opened the door with the companies of the sectors textile, brewery and plastic to manufacture the first of the Tee-shirts and other fabrics, the seconds of the stoppers of their drinks and the third the sachets, bracelets of watches and the Turkish slippers to the colors of the aforesaid teams. Initially, the teams did not include/understand the exploitation of their notoriety and success by the economic operators. Finally, the advertizing war that the concurrent companies for the promotion of their articles were delivered, clothes and gadgets with the colors of the clubs had to push the leader staffs teams to carry out a true series of agreements with these companies for the exploitation of the emblems of the local teams. But, to date, no shop club shop is yet perceptible in Kinshasa. Economic internationalization thus makes it possible to refine the methods of management of the clubs, in particular by rationalizing the merchandizing. In South Africa, in the town of Cape Town, the colors of Ajax Cape Town are the same ones as those of Ajax of Amsterdam and of the companies make use of it more and more to run their productions, in this direction which they manufacture a whole variety of articles, clothes which, used or carried by their customers, but the supporters of the club create a reason of pride and membership of the club. What does not pay less to Ajax Cape Town and Ajax of Amsterdam.

2.2. The entry of the tycoons and investors in the world of African football.

Since long years, the teams of African football belonged either to the monks (case of Vita club and Motema Pembe (RD Congo), Mouloudia (Algeria), or with the fortunate colonists, or finally at the commercial companies with the capital mainly foreign (Very Powerful Mazembe (RDCongo), BBC Lions, Eagle Cement (Nigeria), Nkana Red Devils (Zambia) and fallen in bankruptcy, for the majority.

With the economic internationalization of football, the tendency goes towards the repurchase of the clubs by the local investors acting only or jointly with minority foreign associates. Such is the case of Sodigraf, a Congolese team created following the purchase by a local contractor, Mr. MADILU, of two teams of district. Encouraging, the experiment is spirit to be largely followed by the European private operators who do not cease predicting success with continental football.

2.3. Amateurism with professionalism.

African football seldom left its shell of amateur. It was necessary to await the end of first half of the decade 1990 to see the African clubs launching out on the adventure of professionalism not without financial difficulties. That goes from oneself. The experiment leaves Tunisia.

This country is currently single continent to want to show and give a new and remarkable image to African football. Its football attracts not only thousands of young African but also of Brazilian (of which some were already naturalized Tunisian) and Europeans. And there, to play football as professional remains an activity prestigious and likely to give birth to from the hope with the young people, for which Europe remained most important of all the concerns. South Africa, Egypt, Morocco and the Ivory Coast regularly works to make football of the clubs a true economic company.

But, it is necessary to recognize that the way to traverse long remainder. Since the experiment tried by Tunisia succeeds to him already well, one can consequently predict that at the time this movement will spread, the African clubs of football, as those of the rest of the world under development will be able to constitute another economic development pole from which would leave the efforts for the reduction of unemployment.

When one analyzes the impact of the companies deprived on the economic life of a country, one of the positive aspects remains indisputably the creation of jobs and the high level of the wages. It is the same for the multinational corporations. It is true that at the beginning of the Sixties, tendency which still continued until recently, the States in general and those under development in particular perceived in those only negative effects : plunderings of their raw materials, interference in their internal policy, delocalizations easy, regular cleansings of manpower or the fact that they often entrusted the national direction to the nationals of the country of the parent company.

In spite of this description, sometimes real, it was as shown as the multinational corporations contributed positively to the economic development of the States where they were operational. (World Investment Carryforward, 1998,1999 and 2000). If the clubs of football of the developing countries can arrive at being better managed, then with becoming local partners of the rich clubs of Europe, as well like subsidiary companies as like joint companies, with a little optimist, that would improve quality of the sport and its management ; would create jobs and would make profitable the cost of the transfers of the players.

CONCLUSION.

At the end of this study, our concern was to show that football took another dimension, in its internationalization. Conduit naturally by the clubs, it became an economic activity which makes the latter of true companies. For this reason, the rich clubs of football of the countries of Europe developed these last years of the strategies pushing them to be established abroad. With the creation of the centers of formation, are juxtaposed other forms of agreements, with the analysis of which the thesis of a direct investment or wallet is not to exclude. It is at this point that we tried a comparison between the multinational corporations and the clubs of football which we then described as clubs firms.

Indeed, except the divergence on the definitions of concepts basic, namely club and undertaken, convergence in the realization of an economic activity made return to a certain extent, the teams of professional football in the category of companies ; given that that for the clubs of football, it acted by-there spectacular metamorphosis dating from the Eighties.

However, it would be incomplete to specify only well that carrying out investments abroad, those must be compared to the direct foreign investments i.e., investments which imply a long-term relation, thus reflecting a durable interest of an entity resident of a country of origin (direct investor) on an entity resident (the invested company) of another country and with those of wallet.

In GBA, the Batavian club of Ajax not only took participations, but in more it directs and controls the management of the Belgian club. While, in Africa, more precisely in South Africa or Ghana, Ajax started by placing money ; what does not exclude a possible progression towards the foreign direct investment.

Already, the establishment of the functional bonds moving more encourages to color that it will convert soon its participations into true strategies of foreign direct investments. Because, it is retained a long time that « this last type of investment not represents a simple purchase of actions or titles, but the financing provided by foreign interests which, not only, hold part of the capital of the company but take part directly in the management of the latter ». (World Investment Carryforward, 1996.)

Difference between two concepts resides, according to MUCCHIELLI J.L (1998, p. 46) in this that «in the first case, there is a logic of production, the company which has participations in a subsidiary company will want to influence the production of the latter, its management, its strategy, etc In the case of an investment of wallet, the acquisitions of a holding, in the forms of purchase of actions or other modes, are perceived only like one financial placement ; a simple strategy of diversification of the risks in the national and international placements will thus justify this form of investment. «.

Our approach to compare the forms of economic internationalization of football to operations of direct or indirect investment starts from this specific characteristic of a foreign direct investment and holds its base of the bringing together between what the clubs of football are évertuent to carry out abroad and the consideration of a IDE.

Indeed, the International Finance Corporation, SFI, (1997, p. 11) point out that « for reasons of a statistical nature, the International Monetary International Monetary Funds (the IMF) considers that a foreign investment is direct when the investor holds at least 10% of the own capital stocks of the company, this percentage being generally considered to be sufficient so that the investor has sees in the chapter ». However Ajax controls GBA to the amount of 51% of the capital of this last.

Lastly, let us note that a similarity of the objectives makes it possible to differentiate nevertheless the contents from the advantages of the multinational corporations of that of the clubs of football.

Ø Similarity of the objectives.

The reasons which push an investor to be wished to be established always worried all those which seek to bore the universe of the multinational corporations. And the first to find some of them, Hymer thinks that «to ensure the safety of its investment and to control the whole of the output of the funded capital on the one hand, and to modify the structures of competitions between firms » are the two principal reasons which lead an investor to wish to take the control of a foreign company. (Mucchielli J.L., COp cit., p. 17).

Ø Advantages of the multinational corporations.

But, it should be also announced that the possession of specific advantages and the possibility of their transferability abroad indicate why a company can it multinationaliser. In the same way, the search for better conditions of supply and demand as that of a better competitive position are the determinants of the multinationalisation of the companies ; those thus choose the establishment abroad. (Mucchielli J.L., COp cit., pp. 120-155).

Ø Seek contents of the aforesaid advantages for the clubs of football.

Admittedly, the clubs of football materially do not manufacture products commerciables. The sporting spectacles are obviously to arrange in the category of the immaterial products, commerciables too. Before attending with the drive or the match in a stage of football, the requirement of the ticket or ticket of entry recalls the commercial nature of the product.

Then, for the specific advantages, often technological of the multinational corporations the label and the secular reputation of a club of football are substituted, true base of the merchandizing ; all two species being able to constitute assets for multinationaliser.

The search for better conditions of supply and demand can be translated at the international clubs of football in the search of better conditions of acquisition and sale of the young talented players by the system of the transfers. Who worse is, the research of the rights of retransmission added to the acquisition of good players are the great stakes of football international business.

To finish, let us say that in spite of the effort of internationalization, football remains a saving in weak range compared to that put moving by the great multinational corporations. However, we point out that the true impact of this conversion of football into business to the developing countries can result positively in the creation of jobs.

The foreign direct investment, underlines the International Finance Corporation (COp cit., p. 7), contributes in important measurement to the growth of the emergent economies, although its role is sometimes discussed.

The recruitment of the players is, indeed, an offer of employment to tens of the young people with which it hope of a worthy professional life can finally open. While bringing new capital in the foreign local clubs, the club firm can always improve the level of the wages of the personnel and the players in place.

In the same way, the strategies of financing of the teams, up to that point managed by inexpert hands, are diversified and move primarily towards the maximization of the receipts and the victories while counting on the talented young people.

A new management in force starts again the performances of the team at the edge of the ruin. In that, one is not far from meeting what Torkildsen G. (1986, p. 327) thinks of management : «An active occupation of human and a process by which the people and the organizations reach the results.

Management is not a science, with precise laws and a prédictible behavior ». The increase in the level of the wages of the players of the teams of the developing countries is another advantage which deserves to be underlined. Admittedly, the expenditure for recruitment the new ones can prove to be important.

But the choice of the countries where professional technicality and cheap acquisition are côtoient narrowly shows the possibility for the prospects for realization of the benefit. It is proven that the costs of purchase of the African and Latin-American players are less in their countries of origin compared to than they are worth when they are transferred from a European team to another.

However, by restructuring the local market of the African players and by encouraging their entry in rich championships of Europe, by the mechanism of the transfers intra-group, it is sure that the African players will also take part in the festival of the wages of dream. It also contributes to support the international mobility of the players of the Third World countries.

As example, at the time of the 22nd edition of the EDGE, 171 of the 352 selected evolve/move in European clubs, including 42 in France. Cameroun counts the most expatriates (20 players), followed by Ghana and Nigeria (18), Coast-in Ivoire and Morocco (15), South Africa (12), Senegal (11). Their presence in the national teams causes many hopes, even if it does not guarantee good results. For proof, Morocco and Coast-in Ivoire did not succeed in crossing the first turn of this year, whereas Tunisia, Algeria, which count respectively only three and eight professionals, obtained their ticket for the quarterfinals.

The candidature for the expatriation of many players of the continent does not rest on only sporting, but more especially financial considerations. And there, the inequalities are marked even, because to play in first or the second division in Europe, it is to be ensured to gain much money.

Difficult to know, with precision, the amount of remunerations, so much the sums vary from one country to the other, and the talent of each one. But, on average, a professional player of the first French division empoche 130.000 FF per month, and that of second division 30.000 FF. For most talented, it is necessary to multiply these figures by five. Attention not to confuse with the amazing amounts paid for the transfer of a player. The RC Lens, champion of France 1998, had to spend nearly 25 million FF to have in its manpower the young Cameronian attacker Joseph Désiré Job. Foamed Saïb, captain of the team of Algeria, arrived at the FC Valence, to Spain, for 32 million FF; the Cameronian Marc Vivien Foé in West Ham, in England, for 38 million ; the Man from the Ivory Coast Ibrahim Bakayoko with Olympic of Marseilles for 40 million, and the Nigerian Augustine Okocha was bought by Paris SG for 100 million. Undoubtedly the largest transfer among the African quota in Europe before that of Congolese Shabani Nonda of the ACE Monaco, for the trifle of 140 million FF. These sportsmen, whose career is short (ten years on average), are incontestably privileged people, if one takes account of the annual income per capita in their country of origin (160 to 660 dollars according to countries').

The participation in the international competitions involves enormous expenditure. Because to the wages of the players financial means the important ones are added that the States grant to the national teams. In Egypt, the wages of national trainer, who is of 200.000 FF per month, caused a debate with the Parliament. The Gabonese government placed at the disposal of national Azingo " nearly 1 billion F CFA, Coast-in Ivoire approximately 500 million.

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Garrette, B and Dussauge P, (1995), strategies of alliances, Paris, ED. of Organization.

Hoffmann., Weber and Al (1995), Die wirtschaftliche bedeutung of the Sports, Schorndorf,

Hoffman.

Keagan, W and De Leersnyder, J.M (1994) Strategy of provisioning and production with

the world scale, Paris, Interédition.

Chris Rolfe, (1993), Foreword of Coopers and Lybrand, International Transfer Pricing,

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II. ARTICLES, SPEECH, NEWSPAPERS, REVIEWS, SPEECH AND WEB

Anderff Wladimir (2000), L '' evolution of the European model of financing of the sport

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BROHM J.M, (2000), the hour of the championship of Europe of football. The law of the jungle,

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Dresser, Marie-George, (2000), Agence France Presses (AFP), September 1.

FIFA, Article 34, subparagraph 2, not B of the statutes such as adoptees by the congress from June 6, 1990 with

Rome and amended by the congresses from July 3, 1992 in Zurich, June 16, 1994 in Chicago, July 04, 1996 in Zurich, June 08, 1997 in Paris and by the congress

extraordinary from July 09, 1999 in Los Angeles.

HENNION Blandine (2000), in Release of July 28.

Johnson, R. (1986). Farming What is studies anyway ? Social Text.

Késenne (2000), consequences of the Bosman stop for European football,

in Reflections and Perspective of the economic life, Sport and Universalization.

Which stake for the 21st century? , Volume XXXIX, n°s 2-3.

Kurscheidt (2000), the macro-economic weight of the sport and the economic spectacle :

Methodology, results empirical and economic outlooks in the case of

Germany, in Reflections and Perspective of the economic life, Volume XXXIX, n°s 2-3.

MONTI Mario (2000), Sports and competition policy, Conference held in Brussels, 17

April at the European Commission.

TELO Laurent (2000), in the Team, July.

Thibert Jacques (2000), in Football 365 of July 20.

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Task, Mr. & Késenne, S. (2000), economic The Significance off Sport in Flanders, Newspaper off Sport Management, flight 14, n° 4, October.

Andersen, A. (1999). Economic impact study off the Sydney Olympic Ranges : Full carryforward. Tasmania : Center for Regional Economic Analysis.

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CHABAY Olivier (1999), Sporting spirit counters commercial spirit, Of amateurism to the sport

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Mathieu Edouard, 1999, p. 7) (French Industry and universalization, in Problems

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Mattys Nico (1999) ? , Yellow Paperboard with football ? « Footie counters Footsie » : who beats who ? , in economic Problems n° 2.619.

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Perrot Etienne (1999), dangerous play of financial fusions, in Project, December

Reuters (1999) Brussels, March 02.

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Africa Football (1995), No 95, December.

Africa Football (1995), No 94, November.

Business C-415/93 known as Bosman of December 15, 1995.

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OECD (1993), Re-examined STI, December.

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Vol. 67, n° 1, January-February.

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LEONTIADES James (1984), Market share and Corporate Strategy in International Industries, Newspaper off Business strategy, Summer.

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international trade inside the multinational corporations in some industrialized countries of which Belgium, in the World economic Environment, 5th congress of the Belgian economists of French language, Cifop, Charleroi.

Businesses 36/74 Walrave counters UCI, in Rec. 1974, p. 1405 ;

Business 13/76 Donà counters Mantero, Rec. 1976, p. 1333 ;

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