Memoire Online - La biomasse, activité alternative au développement des zones rurales

II The European situation : an economy énergovore, a rural world in change 10

b) «Biomass Heating contractor off the year 2000 », a national competition 42

Appendix 3 : Leaves renewable energies in the primary consumption of energy of the EU (in %) 58

Appendix 4 : The share of the renewable sources of energy (SER) in the consumption and the energy production 58

Appendix 5 : Ventilation of the contribution of the renewable sources of energy 59

Appendix 6 : Energy production starting from wood-energy in the European Convention countries in 1999 59

Appendix 8 : Comparison between the current tendency and the objectives of the White Paper for the production of biocarurant in the European Union 60

Appendix 9 : European objectives of development of the biomass by 2003 and 2010 61

Appendix 11 : The share of the number of employment in agriculture on the total number of employment, expressed as a percentage, in 1997 63

Appendix 12 : Evolution of employment in the sector of agriculture and agro-alimentary, expressed in million people, for the EU, of 1983 to 1997 63

Appendix 13 : Evolution of the number of exploitation and the nonfamily agricultural labor, expressed as a percentage, between 1990 and 1995 64

Appendix 14: Agricultural surface devoted to the nonfood productions in the EU, expressed in thousands of hectares, by annual countryside 65

Appendix 17: Evolution of the exploitation of the renewable sources of energy on the cold grounds 66

Appendix 18 : Indicative estimate of the public financing for the takeoff campaign of the renewable sources of energy (1999-2003) in the EU 67

INTRODUCTION

Five years after the conference of Rio, the climatic change was again in the center of the international debate from the point of view of « third conference of the parts with convention-tallies of the United Nations on the climatic change » which was held in Kyoto in December 1997. the European Union recognized that it was urgent to attack the problem of the climatic change. It adopted a position of negotiation besides envisaging, as objectives for the industrialized countries, a reduction of 15% of the gas emissions for purpose of greenhouse from here 2010 compared to the level of 1990. To help the Member States to achieve this goal, the commission listed, in its communication relating to the energy dimension of the climatic change, a series of actions as regards energy, where the renewable sources have a role essential to play.

The dependence of the EU lived imports of energy accounts for already 50% of its consumption and should be reinforced during next years if no measurement is taken, reaching 70% in 2020. It is in particular the case for the oil and the gas, which will come from sources increasingly far away from the Union, which often involves geopolitical risks. The security of the supply will thus hold more and more the attention. Being indigenous, the renewable sources of energy will have a role important to play in the lowering of the level of the imports of energy, with the positive effects that that will involve for the external balance and the security of the supply.

The correct operation of the company and our wellbeing require reliable sources of energy which meet our needs for heat, lighting and mechanical force. The renewable energies, exploited in Europe for a long time, are dedicated to play a part growing in our energy provisioning. The good distribution of the renewable sources of energy, particularly the biomass, the hydroelectricity, the solar one and the wind one, indicate them as an important asset for the rural zones where they can improve the economic situation, create qualified jobs and contribute to reduce the load on the environment.

The biomass is the fourth source of energy of planet, the principal fuel used by the three quarters of the world population. It contributes a substantial share to the energy provisioning several European countries.

The cultures at nonfood ends have a long tradition in the 15 Member States of the EU. Their importance increased because in particular of the need for developing renewable energies in order to achieve the dependant environmental goals, for example, with the climatic changes. But several other industrial uses are being studied. Agriculture could become, in the future, a very important supplier of industrial products and energy. The biomass could constitute a solution of replacement to the nonrenewable sources of energy. The increase in the productivity leading to an increasingly surplus offer of food cultures, the alternative industrial uses could become more competitive. Since 1993, the farmers launched the production of raw materials agricultural at nonfood ends on cold grounds. These last years, between 10 and 15% of the fallow lands were devoted to nonfood cultures. Jointly to a certain number of tax measurements, this system contributed to promote the development of cultures intended for the production of ecological bio-fuels and biodegradable plastics.

The agricultural world being in full change and crisis, it is then a question here of trying to find a solution with the development of the rural zones, i.e. a solution to try to make revive campaigns which die, thanks to a new economic activity which could be the culture of energy plants for the production of heat and energy on a large scale.

The biomass represents indeed a significant potential of creation of economic activity and labor.

It will first of all be a question of defining the Community framework concerning the energy policy and the common agricultural policy. We will then see that it is the European situation, as well side of the energy dependence as side of agriculture. Then, we will try to see which are the objectives of the installation of the biomass like source of energy and which it is the feasibility of such a project. Finally we will look at the place which will hold the applicant countries in this project.

I- The Community framework

Before being interested in the biomass and the rural world, it important to define the Community framework and to see which are the Community provisions about the energy provisioning and of the common agricultural policy, center piece of European agriculture.

1- The European energy policy

The community was badly prepared to face the worrying situation following « oil crises » successive, with the incidences on the international and Community system economic and monetary, with the Community attempts to reduce the dependence with regard to imported oil. Indeed, during the signature of the Community treaties, it was practically self-sufficing as regards energy and hoped to replace its traditional energy, coal, by a new energy : atomic energy. Reality was quite different from the forecasts because, in the Sixties, it is the oil which had a spectacular success. It is thus since 1974, following the first « oil crisis », that the Community laid down objectives and started to take measures to reduce its dependence with regard to the oil imports and it is starting from this date that one sees being woven a Community energy policy.

This policy is important, energy is an essential parameter in the economic activity and the social life of the industrialized countries. The cost of energy affects not only industries, large consuming energy, but also the cost of living of the citizens, because in particular of the impact of the prices of energy on the heating and costs of transport. « While respecting the principle of subsidiarity and the requirements of the environment, the European policy of energy aims, therefore, at influencing the production and the use of energy with an aim of ensuring the economic growth and the wellbeing of the citizens of the Union »^1(*). It must, on the one hand, guarantee the correct operation of the single market of the goods and the energy services and, on the other hand, ensure the energy policy. This European policy articulates goshawks of two axes then : the operation of the domestic market of energy and the safety of the energy provisioning.

a) The operation of the domestic market of energy

Far from ignoring the energy policy, the fathers founders of the community devoted two of the three European treaties to him : the ECSC Treaty, for coal and Euratom Treaty, for the nuclear energy. Having laid down the policy to be followed in these two fields, they considered their task achieved in the energy sector and this is why they did not give a responsibility to the institutions of the Community with regard to the other sources of energy.

Rather turned towards a policy of « every man for himself », the governments of the Six all the same took a step ahead while approving, in April 1964, a draft-agreement relating to the energy problems^2(*) , in which they affirmed their will to continue their efforts to work out and implement a Community energy policy.

The full application to the energy of the Community legislation of the domestic market, and in particular of all its provisions relating to freedom of movement of the products and the services, to the monopolies, the companies and the State aid, constitutes one of the essential means to arrive to a market of energy integrated better. The opening of the markets of energy, by the lifting of the barriers of public or private origin and by the implementation of common rules can ensure the availability of energy the most economic conditions for the user, who it is of industry or the private consumer. Indeed, an open market where the purchasers can choose freely, on the one hand the form of desired energy and on the other hand, the most effective suppliers, can generate keen prices. « The integration of the markets east thus fundamental for the competitiveness of the economy of the EU and for the wellbeing of its citizens »^3(*). However this integration is not reached yet in the energy sector, because the Member States evoke the security of supply and the diversity of their energy situation to preserve their different monopolies and their lawful frameworks. The introduction of competition into the sectors where remain of the monopolies could play a paramount part for the integration of the markets and the competitiveness of the economy of the EU.

b) The safety of the energy provisioning

The security of supply can be defined like « the possibility of ensuring satisfaction continues requirements essential in energy with the means, on the one hand, interior resources sufficient and exploited under conditions economically acceptable and, on the other hand, accessible, diversified and stable external sources »^4(*). According to this definition, the security of supply of the Union is not yet satisfactory. In spite of considerable efforts carried out since 1973 to decrease the energy dependence and to improve the energy effectiveness, the EU is still dependant compared to oil and the petroleum products imported on surroundings 50% of her provisioning (Appendix 1). To improve her conditions of provisioning, the EU should reduce the share of imported energy, rationalize as much as possible the use of energy and turn more and more worms of the renewable sources of energy. Taking into account the external costs of traditional energy, related to the pollution of the environment, the changes climatic and the health risks human, these development would not increase only the energy security of supply but would also reduce the general cost of energy.

Renewable energies thus represent a considerable potential to reinforce the European security of supply. The development of their use depends on political and economic efforts extremely important. Medium-term, the renewable ones are the only source of energy on which the European Union has a certain room for maneuver to increase the offer in the current circumstances. « The Union cannot be allowed to neglect this form of energy »^5(*).

2- The Common agricultural policy

The Common agricultural policy (CAP) played a fundamental part in the process of the construction of a European Economic Community, launched by the Treaty of Rome in 1957.

The installation since 1962 of the CAP allowed the constitution of one « European agriculture ». It is the Community policy most elaborate and that which gave place to sharp debates which facilitated the checking of the solidity of the mechanisms of integration of the markets.

Since its installation, the CAP knew to adapt and change to take up the successive challenges to which it had to face. During the first years of its existence, it stuck before very as soon as possible carrying out the objective of increase in the agricultural productivity registered with the article [39] 33 TCE (Appendix 2). This approach was not long in bearing its fruits, from where the great success of the CAP. It quickly was in the need for managing the surpluses of production in certain sectors. It was the engine of an agricultural revolution in Europe during the Sixties and seventies. This revolution allowed the industrialization of this economic sector considered then as a world separately and thus facilitated its progressive integration in the economy as a whole. It also contributed to modify the situation of the agricultural producers and their environment, as well as the traditional structures of the European rural world and the methods of the international trade of the agricultural produce and the foodstuffs.

From the economic point of view, the CAP is an instrument for the installation of sectoral Community activities between a group of country which permanently seeks a compromise to reconcile the defense of national interests and a European higher interest, in particular to face commercial constraints. It called into question the agricultural activity which, traditionally, was not only one activity of production but also a way of life which structured the world of the campaigns. The CAP thus has « contributed to a dissociation enters the agricultural world, that of agriculture, and the rural world, that of the territories »^6(*).

The CAP is founded on three guiding principles. First of all, the unicity of the market, materialized by freedom of movement of the agricultural produce. This implies a Community management of the prices and rules of competition, currency values stable and fixed agricultural rates of exchange as well as a harmonization of the national regulations and a marketing policy with respect to the Non-member states.

Then, the community preference which consists in giving the priority to the production of the community and at low prices to protect the European market against the imports from third countries.

Lastly, the financial solidarity which supposes a community financing of the expenditure of the CAP. Thus, the Funds European of Orientation and Guarantee (EAGGF), created in 1962, has it for function to finance all the expenditure required by the implementation of the CAP.

The CAP thus involved a strong change of the agriculture which, n the other hand of the profits of productivity, knew a strong fall of the number of the agricultural credits. Moreover, one could notice a decrease of the agroalimentary economy in Europe what caused an impoverishment of the farmers whose real income dropped. It also involved the accumulation of surpluses which increased considerably the Community expenditure managed by EAGGF and led to increasingly marked imbalances which justified the adoption of a reform in May 1992.

The influence of the agricultural sector in the whole of the economy and the regional policy of the Community decreases and the CAP did not manage to stimulate the essential structural changes for an economic and social development coherent and in particular to allow a rational balance between the economy and ecology.

The reform of the CAP imposes on Europe the installation of a new model of economic development and a new social contract within the framework of the insertion of L `agriculture in the total economy and the new world economic order. Agriculture has to play a new part in our company, from the point of view of an optimal occupation of agricultural space in term of volume of production, of combination of the factors of production. This orientation supposes a better use of the resources available taking into account the need for an environmental protection. An optimal combination of the resources supposes « to support the use of the ground and work, from a point of view of solidarity (unemployment) and protection of the natural inheritance (environment), compared to the capital »^7(*).

II- The European situation : an economy énergovore, a rural world in change

The European energy dependence is a major problem in the development of the economic activity in Europe since the life and production costs depend on the cost of energy. Since the reform of the common agricultural policy, the rural world life under the sign of the change.

1- An impossible energy autonomy ?

The energy choices of the European Union are conditioned by the limits of its energy self-sufficiency and technologies available. Since the first oil crisis, the growth of the consumption of energy strongly increased the European economic growth parallel to. In spite of this progress, the needs increasing for the European Union run up against the lack of satisfactory domestic energy options. Europe of the 15 consumes much more than it cannot produce.

a) Energy dependence

The request for energy of the European Union increases since 1986 from 1 to 2% per annum^8(*). Reflection of the passage of an industrial economy to a saving in services, the stability of the consumption of industry is largely compensated by the rise of and the tertiary sector household consumption in electricity, transport and heat. European industry made progress of energy saving thanks to investments of modernization. It carried out an effort of disengagement with regard to oil, it accounts for 16% of the total power consumption of industry, and energy diversification in favor of natural gas and electricity. The radiant intensity^9(*) of this sector dropped by 23% between 1985 and 1998.

The households, the tertiary sector and transport are « hostages of hydrocarbons »^10(*). The domestic hearths and the tertiary sector represent the largest sector of

final consumption of energy in absolute terms. This sector knew, until now, a moderate growth (from 355 to 384 million tons oil equivalent between 1980 and 1998). This tendency involves on this market a consumption per capita higher. Indeed, 63% of the needs for the households are covered by hydrocarbons, without counting individual transport. They are the natural gas large-scale consumers (1/3 of gas consumed correspondent with 40% of the needs for the households) and meadows of 18% of consumed oil is by these households (1/4 of the needs).

Transport constitutes, them, a great part of uncertainty concerning the future power consumption. Market depend on oil, indeed, 98% of the market of transport depends on oil what is equivalent to 67% of the final request for energy, this sector knows a considerable growth of the request for energy. Between 1985 and 1998, this one passed from 203 to 298 million tons oil equivalent whereas the number of vehicles, private individuals and utilities, increased by 132 to 189 million, with in parallel the explosion of air transports. The radiant intensity of this sector in increased by 10% between 1985 and 1997. The growth of this sector should continue in the future of 2% during the next decade. Within the European Union, one envisages from here 2010, a growth of transport of passengers of 19% set out again mainly between the car (+16%) and the plane (+90%). The carriages of goods would have are accroîtrent of 38%. The efforts made by the car industry in accordance with the agreement made with the Commission to reduce the CO2 emissions for the private cars will contribute an important share in order to reduce these tendencies. But this progress will not be sufficient to reduce nor to stabilize the energy demand of transport.

The European Union consumed in 1998, 1436 million tons oil equivalent of all energies confused for a Community production of 753 million tons oil equivalent^11(*). Without a deceleration of the growth of consumption in the principal sectors of expansion which are transport and the domestic hearths and the tertiary sector, the energy dependence of the Union will continue to grow. The exhaustion of the resources of the North Sea and a withdrawal partial of the nuclear power, more or less accentuated, will do nothing but reinforce the phenomenon of long-term dependence. The European Union, even following widening and by including Norway there, will continue to have a rate of dependence of meadows of twenty points of percentage higher than that of today, i.e. of surroundings seventy percent.

b) The modesty of the Community resources

In spite of considerable progress of their exploitation, the European conventional reserves remain very weak and their expensive extraction. In the future, a fast trend fall of the domestic fossil energy resources is foreseeable.

There are many uncertainties concerning the production of hydrocarbon in Europe. The oil reserves are very inequitably distributed on a worldwide scale. The European Union is equipped particularly little with it. One considers the reserves Community proven at eight years of consumption at the current level (unchanged consumption and performances). The Union produced, thanks to the exploitation at sea of North (primarily the United Kingdom), 158,3 million tons oil equivalent (1997) that is to say hardly 4,4% of the world production. Today, the costs of extraction of the European production turn goshawks from 7 to 11$ the barrel against 1 to 3$ to the Middle East. The natural gas reserves are distributed relatively better world-wide, but the European Union has hardly 2% of the reserves of the sphere, that is to say twenty years at the current rate/rhythm of consumption. The Union extracted 223,2 million tons oil equivalent in 1997 (12% of the world production). The principal reserves are at the Netherlands (56%) and in Great Britain (24%). ^12(*)

The rate/rhythm of exhaustion of the Community resources depends on the reserves proven but also on the price of hydrocarbons on the international market and technological progress. If the current prices of natural gas and oil were to be maintained on the international market (goshawks of 30$ in 2000) the exploitation of important reserves would be committed. However, whatever the uncertainty related to the international economic situation, within twenty-five years, at the current rate/rhythm of production, the layers of gas and oil at sea of North will become exhausted. In 1999, Norway had 1,77 thousand billion m3 reserves proven out of natural gas which at the current rate/rhythm of exploitation is enough for twenty-three years to consumption. The reserves proven out of oils are considered at 11 billion barrels, sufficient for 10 years still. Widening does not offer any prospect for improvement of the internal production.

The mining productions are also declining, in absolute terms, the world solid fuel reserves are considerable, four to five times those of oil, that is to say two hundred years of consumption. Eighty pourcents of the European reserves in conventional energy consist of solid fuels (coal, lignite, peat).

This optimistic observation must be moderated by the variability of quality of solid fuels and their production costs. The difficult geological conditions and the standards of Social Security cover of the European Union carry the average production cost of the coal to meadows from 3 to 4 times the price of the international market. In this context, the European coal is not competitive. This ditch forced the European producers to cease any production. From here a few years, the European coal-mining industry, even by taking account of widening, will not contribute any more but to one very reduced share of its energy provisioning because of its not very competitive character.

c) The current solution : energy diversification

If since less than ten years, the planet profits from an offer out of relatively cheap hydrocarbons, the War of the Gulf at the beginning of the Nineties brutally pointed out the need for maintaining an independence energy minimal.

Certain sources of energy actually have to disappear. Thus, according to LP'S Statistical Review^13(*), the world coal reserves will be exhausted from here two hundred and nineteen years, those of gas from here sixty-four years and the crude oil reserves from here only forty and one years. Out, in parallel, the requirements in energies will not cease growing, taking into account the economic and demographic development world (according to an estimate of UNO, we will be eight billion in 2020). In the absence of a revolutionary technological breakthrough, the surplus of the needs will have to be covered by the energy-generating products available on the market : natural gas, renewable coal, oil, nuclear power and energies. The production of current electricity is divided between the nuclear power (35%), solid fuels (27%), natural gas (16%), hydraulics and others (15%) and oil (8%). The new capacities will be characterized by the prevalence of the power stations with gas and by the continuation of the retreat of the power stations supplied with the petroleum products and solid fuels.

It thus appears essential to envisage the diversification of the sources of energy, while being based more on energies known as renewable. However, the hydraulic park is already saturated with Europe and poses enormous problems of infrastructures, whereas the wind one and the solar one, by their intermittent character and their constraint of establishment, seem confined with the statute of auxiliary source.

Remain then the nuclear power, from which the resources profit from a good distribution on the sphere and whose techniques of production, although recent, already proved reliable (in France, 80% of electricity are of origin nuclear) and the other renewable sources of energy like the biomass or geothermics. However, the growth of the nuclear energy appears improbable. Its long-term contribution is dependant on the continuation of the policy of fight against the climatic reheating, of its competitiveness compared to other energies, the public acceptance of this form of energy and a solution to the problem of waste. « The contribution of the nuclear power in the current political circumstances (decisions of disengagement of the die taken by certain Member States) should be limited from here 2020 with the status quo »^14(*). Medium-term, the possible disaffection with regard to the nuclear power could result in a higher utilization ratio of the power stations, however these forecasts could be re-examined thanks to the contribution reinforced with renewable and action on the request.

The development as of these renewable energies is not at the same point for each one of them but a movement of industrial development is with work. The best examples are the wind one, the photovoltaic one or the biocarburants whose actors reached an international industrial dimension. Concerning the Convention countries, Germany is essential clearly as the genuine engine which involves in its wake its European neighbors like Austria or the Netherlands. France and Great Britain, up to now in withdrawal compared to these first countries, should quickly fit in dynamic the more voluntarist.

In addition, the political framework of development of renewable energies in Europe starts firmly to be structured. The objectives posted by the European Union, associated the European directive^15(*) on the access to the electrical supply network of these energies, take part in the reinforcement of this overall favorable context.

The objective defined for the EU in the White Paper of the Commission, is to provide 12% of its rough domestic consumption of energy starting from renewable energies in 2010^16(*). Currently, this share is 5,2%. However, the increase in the primary consumption of energy being faster than that of renewable energies, the share of these last rather tends to decrease since 1997 (Appendix 3).

As, one should not lose sight of the fact as renewable energies will succeed in taking up these many challenges only in one condition : general public must adapt them and regard them as as many real and reliable alternatives. The industrial development is the goal to reach, but the basic element is the adhesion of each citizen to the true project of company which the choice of these energies implies. « Employment can be a vector of integration because renewable energies represent today more than 100.000 employment in Europe »^17(*).

2- Biomass

The Commission fixed itself for objective to double the share of renewable energies in the total consumption of energy for master key of 6% in 1997 to 12% in 2010.

The biomass, according to the White Paper, could contribute to a significant degree to the reinforcement of a security of durable supply.

a) Renewable sources of energy

The renewable sources of energy represent, at present, meadows of 6% of the European provisioning including 2% for the biomass. The objective of doubling on behalf of renewable energies in the production of electricity, regularly marked since 1985, could not be achieved^18(*). It is essential that the Member States regard this objective as theirs and lay down national objectives in connection with that of the Union.

Between 1985 and 1998, the increase in the energy production resulting from renewable is important in relative terms, + 30%, but in absolute terms, it is still weak, 65 to 68 million tons oil equivalent. This weak total penetration hiding place very variable shares from one country to another. Four countries have recourse to renewable energies in a significant proportion : Portugal with 15,7%, Finland with 21,8%, Austria with 23,3% and Sweden with 28,5% of the energy production^19(*). These countries are based on the use of their forest and hydraulic potential. In the years to come, the participation of renewable energies should grow in absolute terms. Their proportion in the energy balance will depend largely on their connection to the electrical supply network and their competitiveness.

The primary energy production records the total interior energy production. The interior energy production of the Community covers only a little more half of the needs for the latter and the deficit of the offer increases. The renewable sources of energy are preferable for environmental reasons and can help to reduce the dependence with respect to foreign sources of fuels. The biomass and by extension the wind power are two types of renewable sources of energy which constitute opportunities for agriculture. They contributed to a total value of 2,3% with the complementary primary energy production and represented less than 10% of the primary energy production in 1996. Their contribution to the rough interior power consumption is comparable with that declared by the United States (Appendix 4).

Just like in the United States, the hydraulic power as well as the biomass and waste constitute the principal renewable sources of energy in the European Union. The other renewable sources of energy contribute a less share, but their share increases very quickly (Appendix 5).

The technical and economic potential existing as regards large hydroelectric power stations either is already exploited at bottom or not exploitable because of environmental constraints. The future increase in the contribution of the hydraulic power will be probably the fact of small hydroelectric factories of a power lower than 10 MW. The production of these last increased by 11,8% during five years past and reached, now, 13% of the total hydroelectric production. The more important power stations, of a power higher than 10 MW, see their production decreasing by 1%, but always account for 87% of the total hydroelectric production.

The wind power is currently the source of energy which knows the fastest growth for the production of electricity: its contribution was eight times higher

in 1996 that in 1989. It however is distributed unequally within the European Community, since 97% of the total Community production of wind power came, in 1996, of 6 Member States only. Germany ensures 43% of the wind energy production of the 15 Member States, Denmark 25%, the United Kingdom 10%, the Netherlands 9%, Spain 7% and Sweden 3%. In these countries, the zones potentially appropriate to the applications of the wind power do not have all the same degree of competitiveness and some of them must support costs of installation and/or additional exploitation because of their specific geographical situation. Nevertheless, a major contribution on behalf of the wind power is probable in the near future.

Solar energy can be thermal, photovoltaic or passive. Approximately 1% come from photovoltaic systems and 99% (295 ktep in 1996) of thermal solar panels. Passive solar energy is the principal source of solar energy, but it is not entered in the statistics considering, in the facts, it is obtained primarily by diffusion of the solar radiation through the windows. Solar energy is produced in Greece, in Germany, in Austria, in Spain, in France and in Portugal. In 1996, these Member States accounted for 90% of the Community production of solar energy and their production increased by 180% compared to 1989. Only Germany and Austria posted progressions definitely stronger, being established respectively to 400% and 800%.

b) Biomass

According to the definition of Quid, the biomass is the result of a chemical reaction : «collected solar energy into moderate zone (0,5 to 1%) transforms itself into bituminous materials, sources of thermal or food calories »^20(*). For moderated zones, the annual average output is ten tons dry matter per hectare, with the maximum ones of twenty tons per hectares, that is to say a rough resource of surroundings 3,6 to 7,2 tons oil equivalent per hectare.

One can exploit the energy contained by the biomass in various ways in which most obvious consists in using heat coming from its combustion, that is to say directly by manufacturing vapor in order to generate electricity. The biomass can thus produce energy in a unit of cogeneration of heat and electricity, heat « residual » being able to be reinjected in a network of district heating or an industrial process. One can also obtain energy starting from the biomass by gasification and production of liquid fuels.

The biomass usable includes/understands : chips of wood (sylviculture, sawmills, buildings, industries), the wood of the gasolines with fast growths (willows, poplars), waste agricultural (straw, liquid manure), waste of the sugar cultures (beets, sugar canes), cereal (corn, corn), oleaginous ( solid colzas, sunflower), urban waste, household refuse and industrial effluents (of the agroalimentary sector in particular).

The biomass is a widespread and general-purpose resource which can be used as well at ends of heating of electricity. The sources of provisioning of bioénergie include/understand the agricultural, forest residues and the new energy cultures. The enormous potential of the forest residues and agricultural remained up to now almost unexploited. We will see further how the power station from the Mould in Guadeloupe uses the residues of cane with sugar.

One gathers under the term of biomass the whole of the energy sources coming from the organic matter. They account for 14% of the world energy balance^21(*) and approximately 3% of those of the European Union. This sector is broken up into three distinct dies :

· wood-energy : the European wood resource is considerable and is evaluated to 350 million cubic meter per annum. To develop wood-energy does not mean to in no case to return to the chimney, nor with the wood stove to be reloaded without stop in logs. Boilers drink optimized are used as systems of central heating. They are modern equipment of great capacity, automatically supplied. They are particularly adapted to the uses in collective heatings, networks of heat or with the industrial needs. Boilers powerful and adapted to the needs for the private individuals also start to appear on the market. The productions of heat and electricity added up 466.040 GWh in 1999 and France, strong of a remarkable potential places itself in first position with 108.925 GWH (Appendix 6).

· Biogas : the natural process of degradation of the organic matter leads to the emission of a mixture of methane and CO2. This gas can be used for traditional boiler or the unit power supply of cogeneration^22(*). The discharges of household refuse constitute an important biogas layer, currently, this gas escapes towards the atmosphere and takes part in the effect of greenhouse. The data available do not make it possible to distinguish the production from heat of that of electricity. All in all, one estimates at 22.205 GWh the energy production starting from biogas in 1999. Spain is the European country which most largely engaged in the exploitation of this resource with 13900 GWh. (Appendix 7)

· Biocarburants : they are obtained starting from biomass rich in sugar or starch as the cane with sugar, the Jerusalem artichokes, the sorghum or the beet. With the yeast intervention, one obtains a fermentation of sugars. It is then necessary to have recourse to distillation to collect Diester or of Buthanol. These procedures being only used little, they remain rather expensive, it is necessary to count on average ten francs for one liter of product. The current production of 2 million ton in 2001 should be 4,8 million tons in 2003 (Appendix 8). The expiries would then be respected, which will make it possible to achieve a second goal, namely that in 2005, 2% of the European market of the fuels would be of renewable origin. In spite of their cost of important cost, it is necessary to ensure the perenniality of these biocarburants like their growth on the market of fuels.

In the most voluntarist scenarios of use on a large scale of the long-term biomass for the energy needs, the such scenario of the Conference of the United Nations of Rio for the environment and the development presented in 1992 for the horizon 2050, the objective of the energy contribution of the biomass is of 4,9 giga ton oil equivalent, is less than 7% of the annual production of European biomass^23(*).

The European Union places the biomass at one of the whole foregrounds as regards future developments. The table in appendix 9 described the ambitions of the European Commission for 2003 and 2010 following various applications. However, concerning wood-energy and biogas, it is impossible to today locate the efforts of the European countries taking into consideration future expiry. « The multiple applications of these dies prove their fickleness but complex work of projections »^24(*). One can however advance that the principal countries currently developing these energies have in project of the programs in the short and medium term which will make progress the penetration of the biomass. In fact in particular the case of Sweden which wishes to stress biogas or Austria ambitionne to double the number of its boiler installations drink in the years to come.

c) A potential abundance

At present, the renewable sources of energy are exploited in an unequal and insufficient way in the European Union. Although the number of them are available in abundance and that their real economic potential is considerable, the share of the renewable sources of energy in the total of the rough domestic consumption of energy of the Union, which should progress regularly in the future, is only poor : 6%. A joint effort of the Community and Member States are necessary to take up this challenge. If the community does not manage to satisfy a part definitely more significant of its energy demand for resorting to renewable energies during the next decade, it will let escape an important chance of development and in parallel, it will be increasingly difficult for him to respect the commitments which it undertook so much at the European level than on a world level relating to the environmental protection.

The share of renewable energies in the energy balance of the Community is thus very modest compared to the technical potential which they conceal. One notes however the signs of a change, if slow is it.

One knows the bases of resources better, technologies are in constant progress, the attitudes towards their use change and industries of production and services in this sector are riper. But renewable energies have still sorrow to take off in term of marketing. In fact much of technologies would need only one small blow of inch to become competitive. In addition, the biomass, the wind power and solar energy offer a technical potential up to now unexploited. The current tendencies show that considerable technological progress was made during last years in the field of renewable energies. The costs decrease quickly and by many sources of energy, for little that the conditions are met, reached economic viability or approach some. Certain technologies, in particular the biomass are competitive and viable right now the from an economic standpoint.

The question of the renewable energy resources arises only for those which function apart from the natural elements, like the biomass (biocarburant included/understood). It is clear that there is not, in theory, real quantitative problems of provisioning. Domestic waste is in constant growth and could offer an appropriateness use considerable as well as the by-products of industry of wood and agroalimentary. But their use is not without damage for the environment and can develop only thanks to high technology. « The Community resources in conventional primary energies do not allow, in the current state of technologies, to consider an energy autonomy for Europe. Only the renewable resources of high technologies can limit the tendency towards an increasing energy quantitative dependence »^25(*).

The evaluation of the local resource starts with the examination of the use of the grounds, in particular the types of practiced cultures and the possible presence of unutilised residues (forest waste, straw, cores of olives for example). If it proves that there is a large quantity of residues available, he can be interesting to recruit a consultant to calculate the total annual resource and his energy content, which strongly varies from one resource to another. The output and the economic viability of the energy cultures differ according to nature from the ground, of the climate, the type of culture, the technological penetration in the area. Each project is the subject thus of a pragmatic evaluation of the resource really which can be developed.

3- The rural world

The number of agricultural employment continues to decrease. The family unit remains the basic structure of the exploitation. However, of new forms of employment (activities of diversification) and of new types of organizations (part-time exercise) are born.

a) Changes

Employment in the agricultural production is more important in the South of Europe. It decrease overall, although at less intervals since the reform of the Common agricultural policy (CAP) undertaken in 1992. Employment in the agroalimentary sector, on the other hand, is maintained. The relative share of each one of these sectors in total employment is reduced. In the rural zones, the role of agriculture as provider of employment tends to decrease even if its role as for the safeguarding of the rural landscapes remains essential. As a whole, the relative share of agricultural employment compared to total employment is higher than the share of the gross value added

agricultural in the GDP This can be interpreted as a need for structural adjustment but reflects also the importance of family work and partial time in agriculture. The reduction in the number of exploitations and the increase in their size do not go hand in hand systematically with an increase in paid labor.

In 1997, approximately 7,4 million people worked in the agricultural sector (agriculture, drives out, sylviculture and fishing) including 7,2 million in agriculture itself (by excluding fishing). In 1997, the share of employment concerned with agriculture rises on average, in the EU, to 5%. She is higher than 10% in the three countries covered in integrality by objective 1 of EAGGF: Greece, Portugal and Ireland (Appendix 10).

The distribution of agricultural employment on the European territory must moreover, being put in prospect with the type of productions. Thus, where the Mediterranean productions, more demanding in labor, dominate (Italy, Spain, Greece and Portugal), the rate of average employment is 9%. The field crops and the breeding, more present in the countries of Northern Europe, have less needs (average rate of use of 3% for Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom) (Appendix 11).

The number of employment in the agricultural sector falls continuously. It is a heavy and irreversible tendency, related to the total economic development and which is observed in the whole of the technologically advanced countries. The increases observed in 1986 and 1995 are related to the accession of Spain and Portugal, on the one hand, of Austria, of Finland and Sweden, on the other hand. This reduction affects all the Member States but more particularly the principal countries agricultural providers of employment (Italy, Spain, Portugal, France). These four countries lost each one between 1987 and 1997, more than one third of their uses in agriculture (against an average Community loss of a quarter). Denmark also seems strongly to be touched, but this loss rather appears to be artificial and due to the development of parallel structures whose employment is classified out of the agricultural sector. Belgium loses on the other hand over the decade, only 5% of its agricultural employment (Appendix 12).

The year 1992 marks a point of inflection in this evolution. Following the reform of the CAP, the rate/rhythm of disappearance of the exploitations appreciably slowed down. From - 5,2% in 1991, it passed gradually to - 1,6% in 1998; on a Community scale.

Differences appear between the North and the South of the EU in the distribution of the population pyramid of the managers. The share of old owners is generally higher in the Mediterranean countries: practically an owner on 2 A more than 55 years compared with only 1% of the German owners. Only 4% of the Portuguese owners and 6% of the Italian owners are old less than 35 years (for 1 out of 10 on average Community).

Family labor is dominating in agriculture. In 1995, four employment out of five is family labor. The number of paid nonfamily is highest in the United Kingdom and Denmark. The farm remains a business of family everywhere else. For example, in Finland, the share of family agricultural labor exceeds 97%.

The reduction of the number of exploitations and the increase in their size inevitably did not lead to an increase proportional in paid labor. The impacts are different according to Member States'. Certain countries, such Denmark and Greece, see their number of paid agricultural employment strongly increasing. It is still true but to a lesser extent for Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. These evolutions are related to increases in competitiveness and productivity.

Other countries record a simultaneous reduction in the number of exploitations and paid labor: Germany, Portugal, Italy, and in a less marked way, Ireland and France (Appendix 13).

For the whole of the countries of the EU, the disappearance of the exploitations involves, as in any other economic sector, the setting with the unemployment of paid labor. It is not the only effect induced by these disappearances since family labor concerned generally comes to enlarge the rows of unemployment.

The female use in agriculture represents a third of the total of employment in the European Union. It is very present at Portugal and in Austria (respectively 52% and 49%).

The level of study of the farmers tends to progress. More than one farmer out of ten carried out higher studies in Germany, in the United Kingdom and in Ireland (respectively 17%, 11% and 10%) for a Community average of 6%. Within the framework of its work on the agri-environmental indicators, OECD retained the level of study as an asserting indicator that «it is generally agreed that the higher the level of studies is, the more the environmental aspects become a concern of the farmers»^26(*).

Between 1975 and 1995, the agricultural production concentrated, average surface increased and the exploitations specialized, by supporting monoculture. The vegetable production intensified, by having more recourse to the inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) and in substituent the capital with work (machines, irrigation, improvements of land). This agriculture of point, more intensive, had a total impact on the environment during 15 last years.

In term of occupation of grounds and of landscape, farmers European manage and maintain 44% space European by the means of Surface Agricultural Useful (SAU), and if one takes into account other spaces which they hold in property and/or hiring and that they exploit, they manage more half of the European territory.

Agricultural surface A decreases in a significant way over the two last decades. Certain zones of the European Union abandoned or were marginalized either because difficult of accesses or not very favourable with the agricultural activities continuation, in particular, with the fall of the farm prices (tendency economic heavy related to the transfers of profits of productivity), or under the pressure of the urbanization and tourism, or like result of the process of general development economic which appears in particular through the rural migration.

b) Nonfood cultures

The biomass remains the principal source of renewable energy. Wood resulting from the forests constitutes the oldest bio-fuel and most widespread. But the agricultural sector provides an increasing share of the biomass used to energy ends. Indeed, of the woody cultures^27(*) are gradually established on grounds of agricultural origin, in particular within the framework of devices introduced at the time of the reform of 1992, the such support for the timbering of the arable lands and the freezing of the grounds. Indeed, a farmer has the right to cultivate not-food seedlings on the fallow lands.

The nonfood cultures are practiced of long date within the framework of Community agriculture. Traditionally, the production was very often limited to textile fibers (flax, cotton and hemp), with the starch for various industrial uses, vegetable oils, the chemicals or medicinal and the medicinal plants. Many other nonfood uses meanwhile were developed or are being studied currently.

The flax is traditionally used for many uses and by its natural qualities and its exceptional performances, it is component important of a great number of current products. It makes the floor coverings or others more respectful of the environment, the more resistant concrete and the products containing more solid fibers. The flax is also largely employed for the manufacture of fine paper, compound products and oil in cosmetic industry.

The corn is also used more and more frequently in industry, including at ends other than bioenergetic. The corn raids are of great interest for various industrial processes, such as the treatment of surfaces as well as the heat insulation and phonic. The corn ears can also be used in the industry of conditioning for the carriage of fragile goods.

The manufacturers turn today worms of new products containing linseed oil, used in paintings and like adhesive agent in the ordinary fiberboards. These components containing linseed oil replace certain solvents and petrochemical derivatives in the product formulation and thus contribute to the control of pollution atmospheric. The linoleum, plastic floor covering more resistant, is presented in the form of a product attracting at the paddle of XXIe century. Containing approximately linseed oil 30%, it is biodegradable and entirely breaks up when it is put at the reject.

The bioénergie is the sector which, currently, arouses the greatest interest; apart from direct combustion, it represents however only one marginal share in the pallet of fuels. The production costs of bio-fuels remain very high compared to fossile fuels and are not competitive under the current conditions, insofar as their environmental advantages compared to traditional fuels are not reflected in the prices. In its White Paper on the renewable sources of energy, the Commission indicates that « the bio-fuels present an overall positive energy balance, although this one varies from one culture to another and also depends on the culture which was replaced «^28(*).

The reform of the CAP encouraged the use of agricultural surfaces for the practice of nonfood cultures. The cold grounds quickly became one of the principal suppliers of surfaces devoted to the nonfood cultures within the Community (17% in 1993/94 for the UE-12 and even 44% in 1995/96 for the UE-15). Recent estimates reveal a stabilization at 20%. Colza accounts for approximately 80% of the surface of the nonfood cultures profiting from the mode of freezing of the grounds. It is about a key energy culture, used primarily for the production of Diester (bio-diesel) (Appendix 14).

With an equal share, before 1993/94, to approximately 30% of the whole of the surface devoted to the nonfood cultures, to seven times the surface reserved for the production of flax fibers is five, cotton traditionally was the principal nonfood culture. It is cultivated in Greece (more than 400.000 ha in 1995), in Spain (35 000 ha in 1995 and 65.000 in 1990) and, to a lesser extent, in Italy. In 1993/94 (UE-12), cotton was the first nonfood culture, but since 1994/95 (UE-15), nonfood colza supplanted during three following campaigns. From marketing year 1997/98, cotton occupies the first place again. The surface devoted to nonfood colza is directly related to the rate of freezing of the grounds, decreasing at the same time as this last.

The flax fiber is another traditional nonfood culture, practiced mainly in France, Belgium and in the Netherlands. Since 1994/95, the acreage in flax increases, on average, of almost 20% per annum for the UE-15, which represents one of the highest rates of increase among the nonfood cultures. Contrary to linseeds used for the production of oil, fiber flax is not likely to profit from the mode of freezing of the grounds for the production of nonfood cultures.

The flax intended for the production of oil is the nonfood culture whose acreage progresses most quickly. Thanks to the progress made so much in the techniques of harvest than in the techniques of transformation, the production increased, on average, of almost 40% during five last years.

Among the not-food cultures on the fallow lands, the oilseeds occupy the largest surface, for the development of the bio-diesel. The bio-fuels are exposed to the competition of the fuels of fossil origin, and their development depends on the application of adapted tax instruments, within the framework of the energy and/or environmental policy

c) Biomass and agriculture

Forest residue and the firewood combustion or agricultural is the principal technology implemented in the EU to exploit the renewable sources of energy, but its contribution to the energy production progresses less quickly than that of other sources of biomass (Appendix 15). The production of vapor and heat constitutes the most frequent application, whereas the production of electricity plays a role rather limited in this respect (less than 3% in 1996). To a large extent (2/3 according to estimates'), the firewood consumption by the households is not the any commercial exploitation object.

In 1996, the incineration of 12% of urban waste in the Member States gave place to a recuperation of equal energy, on the whole, to 5,1 million tons oil equivalent.

The forest statistics of the EU give a report on an increase in the production of firewood (+ 16% between 1991 and 1995) as of a reduction of the deficit of the trade balance of this product with third countries (Appendix 16).

The importance of the firewood varies according to the Member States. In 1995, the eight Member States in which the share of the firewood was lower than the Community average produced a third of the firewood of the Community, but two thirds of the whole of the roundwood.

Parallel to the practice of cultures at energy ends, the agricultural sector also contributes to the energy production by the means of the activities related to the digestion of the agricultural liquid manure (26,3 ktep in 1996) and the valorization of the effluents of agroalimentary industry (103,2 ktep in 1996).

The anaerobic digestion of organic waste knows a fast expansion in the EU. The recourse to this practice is explained primarily by reasons of an environmental nature, but the recuperation of energy is a welcome by-product.

The vegetable material with fast growth (energy cultures) offers important possibilities of short-term development, since the grounds put in fallow can be used at ends of energy production within the framework of the reform of the CAP. The mode of freezing of the grounds for the production of nonfood cultures is applied from the marketing year 1993/94 (harvest of 1993). For the marketing year 1995/96, one estimates that 60% of the raw materials produced on the cold grounds were used at energy ends. There are two categories different of outlets for the renewable energy resources coming from the grounds put in fallow: liquid bio-fuels and solid bio-fuels. The woody cultures cover the perennial lignocellulosic vegetable productions (poplar, willow, etc), which lend themselves to a direct combustion. The oleaginous cultures relate to the oleaginous seeds (colza, sunflower, etc), of which are extracted from vegetable oils intended to be transformed into substitute product of Diesel oil. The cultures of plants with sugar or starch allow the production of ethanol by fermentation of glucose or the starch-based matters^29(*) after hydrolysis.

The total output of bio-diesel in the European Union, based on only oleaginous seeds coming from grounds put in fallow, was 300.000 to 500.000 tons in 1994.

The farms of big size (>100 ha of agricultural surface usable) have more of two thirds of the grounds devoted to nonfood productions, but also more half of the unit of the grounds placed under mode of assistance. The grounds used for the production of agricultural raw materials nonfood cover however less than 1% of the total surface cultivated by these exploitations.

The mode of freezing of the grounds applied since 1993/94 within the framework of the reform of the CAP very strongly influenced the way in which the grounds are managed by their owners. Although the rotation of crops remains the principal mode of management of the fallow, the farmers also developed other activities on their grounds. This practice, including an important component of the renewable sources of energy, is the second most important use of the cold grounds profiting from the mode of assistance^30(*).

In the agricultural sector, the production of renewable energy matters offers prospects as a complementary source of income for the farmers. The farm accountancy data network (RICA) recorded micro-economic data on the nonfood oilseeds cultures since 1995, even 1994 for certain Member States. If information available does not make it possible to paint a general picture of the situation at community level, the analysis of the existing data does not reveal any less certain convergences.

For the subset of data RICA established for Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and Denmark in 1994, 1995 and 1996, the distribution of the exploitations is identical to that highlighted by the investigation into the structure of the farms of 1995. The exploitations producing of the nonfood oilseeds are larger in terms of surface, but also from the point of view of the standard economic indicators used by the RICA. For each above mentioned Member State, the share of the ascribable production to the nonfood oilseeds is negligible; the major part of the income comes from the subsidies. Compared to the acreage, the production of the nonfood oilseeds also is very limited, since these cultures cover 12% of the surface, but account for only 1,5% of the production.

III- Objectives of the installation of the biomass like energy

The One renewable source of energy having a potential of exploitation is an asset for a rural zone. According to the territory, it can offer various advantages as the exploitation of the local resources which contributes to improve the economic situation by exporting energy or by decreasing the external provisioning, or the creation of jobs qualified and the lightening of the load on the environment.

1- reduction of the energy dependence

As we saw previously, the renewable sources of energy are of indigenous origin and can contribute to reduce the dependence with respect to the imports and to increase the security of the supply. The development of the renewable sources of energy can contribute actively to the creation of jobs, mainly within small and medium-sized companies which are the screen of economic fabric of the community and which represents besides the majority of the companies in the various renewable energy sectors. The deployment of the renewable sources of energy can become one of the engines of the regional development tending towards a stronger social and economic cohesion in the Community.

The discounted growth of the consumption of energy in many third countries, in Asia, in Latin America and Africa, which on the whole can be ensured by a recourse to renewable energies, offers promising outlets to European industries which occupy, in many fields, a dominant position with regard to technologies of renewable energies.

2- Relaunching of the rural world

Renewable energies agreeing particularly well with the rural medium, one can then say that the promotion of their exploitation should generate prospects interesting for rural employment and the economic activity.

a) A durable and profitable economic activity

the exploitation of renewable energies can contribute to the regional development by injecting into the rural territories a source of income invaluable and durable. The White Paper « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy » stress their importance like element of cohesion and development in the underprivileged areas (objective 1 in particular, to see appendix 10) : « the funds invested on a regional scale in the development of the renewable sources of energy could contributes to raise the standards of living and the incomes in the the least supported, peripheral, insular, isolated or declining areas "^31(*).

b) Creation of jobs

As we saw previously, the Commission fixed itself for objective to double the share of renewable energies in the total consumption of energy to pass from 6% in 1997 to 12% in 2010. The Green Book « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy » estimates that this evolution should give a new impulse to SME and will also exert beneficial effects on employment. The biocarburants are also creators of employment in the rural zones and contribute to preserve rural fabric by offering new outlets to the agricultural production.

The quality and the type of generated employment vary according to the characteristics of each technology considered. For the biomass, employment concentrates in the production and the collection of the raw materials. European Association for biomass (the AEBIOM) thinks that 1 billion stations could be created in this sector from here 2010 if the potential of the biomass were fully exploited. One also envisages exports for an amount of 17 billion euro, generating 350.000 additional employment.

Moreover, agriculture remains a vector of economic and social cohesion. The average tendency of European agricultural employment is clearly directed with the fall. This reduction should not bring to think that agriculture is dedicated to play a secondary part in the process of economic and social cohesion of certain areas, in particular of the areas known as rural. Even become minority in the campaigns, the farmers remain the main managers of the territory. Consequently, agricultural employment determines to a large extent the level of attractivity of these areas, in term of landscape in particular.

For a long time, the EU became aware of this essential role of agriculture and encourages certain activities of diversification. Two payments in particular trace the way. Payment (the EEC) n° 2078/92 of the Council, of June 30, 1992, relates to the methods of agricultural production compatible with the requirements of the environmental protection as well as the maintenance of the natural space whose certain objectives are subjected to a mode of assistances:

· to encourage the maintenance of the arable and forest lands abandoned where that proves to be necessary for ecological reasons of natural risks or fire, and to prevent of this fact the risks related to the depopulation of the agricultural areas

· to encourage the shrinking of the arable lands in the long run at environmental ends

· to encourage the management of the grounds for the access of the public and the leisures

In the same way, Payment (the EEC) n° 2080/92 of the Council, of June 30, 1992, instituting a community system of assistances to forest measurements in agriculture aims to an alternative use of the arable lands by timbering and to the development of the forest activities in agricultural employment.

The developed functions of diversification these last years are far from being negligible. They constitute, on a given territory, a new element of social integration of the credits. Four fields seem to take a consequent importance as regards creations of jobs:

· the safeguarding of the landscapes, the protection of the natural zones of great value and the habitats like the wetlands, the protected rivers and zones

· a durable exploitation of the forest, preserving the biodiversity and offering other functions (for example, in entertaining matter)

· the development and the use of plants with nonfood goal, for example for industrial needs or for energy production

Other fields are carrying a potentiality of creation of employment, and particularly in the rural areas: the country holidays, the patrimonial stock management, the services rendered to the communities, etc to exploit these possibilities, the farmers must mobilize the regional and local authorities, of the companies, the O.N.G and the financeurs. This implication in the management of the environment can support appropriatenesses creation of jobs and incomes complementary or alternative. In order to answer these requests, agricultural employment already started to adapt in certain areas thanks in particular to the emergence of new forms of employment (associations, groupings of employers, etc). The development of these new activities cannot yet at present be quantified precisely.

The political challenge which the Diary 2000, in its agricultural part and more particularly rural development, tries to answer, is to weaken or even break the bond between agricultural exodus and rural migration. The new regulation increases considerably the margins of freedom given to the national or proper authorities, to set up the programs most adapted to the local situation. With the request express of the Council of Ministers, the field of application of the new regulation was extended to the diversification of the activities in the field agricultural or close to agriculture and with the basic services necessary for the economy and the rural population.

A project aiming at creating a power station of cogeneration functioning with the biomass generates several established posts in the agricultural activities and/or the collection of fuel, like at least a part-time employment to deal with the boiler and equipment of production.

3- An ecological concern

General public prefers the development of renewable energies to that of any other source of energy, primarily for ecological reasons. Indeed, under the pressure of the ecological concerns, the solid fuels and the nuclear power start both a decline in the production of electricity. In the current state of the equipment and technologies, the simultaneous reduction of these two energy sources is likely to create economic tensions and of provisioning in the absence of a voluntarist policy of management of the request.

Moreover, the quality of the air has been, for a few years, a political priority of the European Union and it will remain it. In 1992, at the Top of the Earth in Rio de Janeiro, the Union began to stabilize in the year 2000 its CO2 discharges on the level of 1990. In Kyoto in 1998, it was appropriate of a reduction of 8% compared to this level for a whole of six gases for purpose of greenhouses, objective to be realized between 2008 and 2012. The protocol of Kyoto should have deep consequences on the energy policy of the decades to come and in particular on the use of renewable energies.

All thus states that renewable energies will play a part growing in our energy provisioning, the European Commission having considered it them able to contribute a significant share to the achievement of the objectives of reduction of gases for purpose of greenhouse.

IV- An energy with a future

Until now, the promotion of renewable energies was the varied program object, of unequal importance at the national and Community level.

1- European programs

The Member States having only few means to carry out projects with the biomass for fuel, or in general any other form of renewable energy, the European programs are essential in this step.

a) The countryside for the takeoff of the renewable sources of energy

The White Paper identifies three sectors, biomass, wind, solar, with tested technologies, which are regarded as essential achieving the goal on the one hand of 12% of the renewable sources of energy in the energy balance, but which need an initial impulse to accelerate and improve their penetration on the market, which would allow economies of scale and, consequently, a reduction of the costs. Another priority is to integrate renewable energies within the communities wishing that their energy provisioning be exclusively assured by renewable sources of energy.

With regard to the biomass, the objectives of the countryside for takeoff are as follows :

· ten thousand megawatts thermal generated by installations of cogeneration starting from the biomass

The biomass is a widespread resource since it includes/understands, in addition to the woody biomass and the residues of the processing industry of wood, the cultures energy, the agricultural residues and the agroalimentary effluents, the liquid manures as well as the organic share of solid urban waste, the sorted household refuse and muds

of purification. The biomass is a source of general-purpose energy insofar as it can produce, according to needs', of electricity, heat or the fuel. It can be stored, unlike electricity, in an inexpensive and generally simple way. Moreover, the power of the manufacturing units can strongly vary : small units with the units producing several megawatts. « The total objective of a penetration of 12% of renewable energies from here 2010, stated in the White Paper, can be achieved only thanks to one important use of the biomass »^32(*). This is why, the outing in the country devoted to the biomass revêt a significant importance, the total contribution of the countryside is estimated at surroundings 14,5 million tons oil equivalent, that is to say 16% of the penetration estimated of the biomass in 2010 according to the White Paper. The takeoff campaign will require investments of surroundings 12,4 billion euros. (Appendix 19)

In addition to the objectives in the above definite key sectors, the countryside for the takeoff of renewable energies is also fixed for task, as the White Paper indicates it, to identify « hundred communities » having for objectives to obtain an energy provisioning exclusively assured by renewable energies. This program of « hundred communities », in its initial version of the White Paper, an interest shown in all the European Union caused and could also constitute a point of reference for the installation of a decentralized energy provisioning.

To optimize the potential of technologies related to the renewable sources of energies, it is advisable to use them jointly each time that is justified in the field of the productivity, either in integrated systems for the local electricity supply or in systems dispersed for the regional food. There is a great number of communities which show characteristics very different in terms from size, demographic density, standard of living, climatic conditions, styles of construction, cultural traditions, energy richnesses and, of course, energy systems. The following characteristics are then important in the evaluation of the feasibility of an integration of the renewable sources of energy :

· density of power consumption per unit of area taking into consideration renewable source of energy available

One can then then classify the communities following of the criteria of sizes and geographical situation :

· urban communities, solar contribution lower than the density of power consumption, other renewable sources of energy in reduced quantity, examples : groups of buildings, districts of residential zones, villages, cities, large cities

· rural communities, solar contribution proportioned with the density of power consumption, other renewable sources of energy (wind, water, biomass) in generally significant quantity, examples : small rural zones, provinces, areas

· isolated communities, solar contribution more important than the density of power or proportioned consumption to this density, other renewable sources of energy in generally significant quantity, not or little interconnection to the external electrical supply network, example : isolated zones, autonomous islands, zones^33(*)

The communities candidates must work out the plan which they will adopt to optimize the penetration of renewable energies. They must stop a strategy defining a calendar, priorities and partners able to implement the necessary actions and to supervise their unfolding. Local and regional communities, as well as the regional centers of energy, have a role important to play in the implementation of the program. The preference must be given to the activities implying of the combinations of several technologies, because such projects must be likely to cover all the chain of development, design with the realization. The costs of this initiative are difficult to quantify with precision because of the width and the very diverse nature of each possible action.

As the White Paper indicates it on the renewable sources of energy, the countryside is intended to support the implementation of projects on a large scale in the key sectors of the renewable sources of energy and to send clear signals, encouraging the increased exploitation of the latter. The role of the Commission will consist in defining a framework, bringing a technical aid and financial if necessary and coordinating the actions. The role of the Member States in this action will be determining : it will rest with to them to promote the objectives of the countryside and to coordinate the actions at the national level. If the role of the public sector is essential, the principal role of the countryside east however to help and encourage the private sector and to engage all the parts interested in promotion of renewable energies (Appendix 19).

b) Altener II, Leader +

The program ALTENER II^34(*), which will be integrated soon into the outline programme in the field of energy, is the principal instrument of supports and monitoring of the Community strategy as regards renewable sources of energy and, consequently, of the countryside for the takeoff of the renewable sources of energy. Measurements of supports campaign within the framework of program ALTENER consist of a financing of actions of promotions. The proposals received within the framework of the call to projects 1998/1999 will lead to one supports Community of more than 200 projects, numbers of them being directly related to the countryside. The funds of program ALTENER II made it possible to create and finance « AGORES », a virtual center of information primarily composed of a data base. It is the response of the Commission to the opinion expressed by the European Parliament in connection with the creation of a single information center on the renewable sources of energy.

The new Community initiative of rural development is Leader+. The European Commission adopted, April 14, 2000, a Communication with the Member States fixing the orientations for the new Community initiative relating to the rural development, Leader+, one of the four Community Initiatives within the framework of the structural Funds over the period 2000-2006. The four Initiatives will profit on the whole from 5,35% of the appropriations of the structural Funds over the period 2000-2006. The amount

total of the contribution of the European Union (EU) for Leader+ over the period 2000-2006 of 2,020 billion euros, will be financed by the EAGGF-Orientation.

Name «Leader+» insists on the fact that it is not a question of a simple continuation of Leader II but of a more ambitious Initiative which aims to encourage and support the realization of original strategies of high quality for the integrated rural development. It also exploits the co-operation and the establishment of networks between rural zones. All the rural zones inside the EU will be eligible under Leader+.

2- Examples to be followed

The examples of power stations or cogeneration functioning with the biomass are multiple. Many farmers often use biological and renewable fuels in a marginal and artisanal way. Here here some examples of most representative of than one can make on a large scale.

a) The power station of the Mould in Guadeloupe

The renewable sources of energy can constitute, in certain areas isolated like the islands, the only source of comfort. In Guadeloupe, the principal agricultural activity is the culture of the cane with sugar. Bagasse is the residue of the process of the cane with sugar, it is thus the fiber which remains after extraction of sugar. Of a ton of cane, there remains thus 320 kg of bagasse. Bagasse has a heating capacity higher than that of many lignites exploited in the world. Ten tons of bagasse equivalent to almost two tons of heavy fuel with the less polluting and renewable advantage of being over an annual cycle.

Bagasse was already used by the traditional sugar industry in the boiler rooms to produce vapor and even sometimes of electricity, but for its exclusive use. The application of modern techniques makes it possible to release from large surpluses of electricity on the needs for subsistence farming. (Appendix 20)

Bagasse is not available all the year and the production of vapor starting from bagasse coincides by definition with the sugar cycle. Produced energy is very definitely higher than the need for the sugar refineries and it must availability of the Inhabitants of Guadeloupe. Consequently, this production must form part of the continuous total offer of energy suggested by EDF (Electricity of France). It is not thinkable to stop the other power stations the time of the sugar season to give them once on the way the last season. It is thus necessary to offer an about constant production of electrical current. It is however impossible to store bagasse more than one week. Sugars which it still contains, even with low dose after their extraction, cause a fermentation which would make it unusable for a good combustion.

The construction of a power station firstly using the residue of cane with sugar, bagasse, constitutes an essential element of « governmental programme of consolidation and development of the culture of the cane in Guadeloupe »^35(*). The culture of the cane covers 13.000 hectares, that is to say 43% of the arable lands. The collection lasts four months. It produces 500.000 tons of cane normally, this plan was worked out to give again oxygen with this activity which tended to decline : 310.000 tons, only, were produced at the time of the preceding countryside this initiative.

The power station plays a decisive part in the adopted device. The sugar refinery of Gardel concentrates from now on the treatment of all the canes of the Island. Without the contribution of the power station, it would have been necessary to invest in a new boiler room. According to first indications', the sugar production would have found its usual level right now.

In addition, the output of the installation increased considerably. If one compares the whole of the die proposed by SIDEC^36(*) with the traditional sugar refineries using bio-combustion in subsistence farming, the surplus is of 54mW for 100.000 tons of sugar. The power stations of cogeneration can reach an energetic efficiency of surroundings 89% against hardly more than 40% for a power station running with fuel or coal.

a) A system of heating combined biomass-solar on a village scale

In Deutsch-Tschantschendorf in Austria, a village co-operative, created in spring 1993, sets up in October 1994 a station of central heating of 1100kW. The food is ensured by glazing bar and bark coming almost

exclusively cleaning of the forests neighborhood. The system combines with 325m2 solar panels. The solar panels provide hot water to the twenty-nine users, in particular in summer when the boiler is not lit and bring a supplement of energy the remainder of the year. The project is integrated in a baptized program « Renewable area of energy »^37(*) and which relates to the district of Güssing.

The farmers of the villages of Burgenland, area where the village of Deutsch-Tschantschendorf is, have a strong tradition of family mutual aid. Associations and co-operatives are usually created to support local projects. In Güssing, chief town of surroundings 3000 inhabitants, the municipality was declared interested to create in the castle of the old city one « center for renewable energy » which would play the part of regional agency of energy. The farmers were interested to draw a supplement from income of the cleaning of the forests but the firewood is not competitive compared to fuel oil or electricity. The district and the area thus decided the creation of a protection system and financial assistances :

· since the wood and the imported chips of Hungary are much less expensive than those produced locally, the regional government, which finances these installation partly communal, imposes a minimum price for the chips coming from the local forests. It also provides to the users a credit atvery low interest rate (0,5% over 10 years) to finance the individual expenditure of connection. On its side, the Funds Federal for ecology ensures control and scientific research.

In Austria, the history of the collective stations of heating to the biomass started in the Eighties. In 1990, the first station of Burgenland is born on the initiative of a co-operative of farmers. At the beginning of 1993, two inhabitants of Deutsch-Tschantschendorf decide to count, by making door-to-door, all the people interested by the installation of a system of this kind.

In the middle of the station, a boiler of 1.100kW with two tanks functions surroundings seven months and half per annum. Wood is stored meadows of the station and is crushed twice a year by dechiqueuteuse a mobile. The chips are then stored. All the one at four weeks, the needs, part of the heap is versed in a container from where it is transported automatically towards a drier then in the boiler. The boiler is equipped with a system of ventilation and burns at high temperature so that combustion is complete. Smoke is filtered, the residues and ashes being able to be used as manure in the fields.

The boiler has an effectiveness of 85%, the losses of distribution being of 15%. The relationship between capacity installation and length of the system shows that the dispersed inhabitants should not resort to these heating systems, the losses being too important.

The first year, the co-operative sold 750.000 kWh with 0,04 euro/kWh, which corresponds to the average cost of production of kw starting from fuel oil, the least expensive of fossil energies.

The environmental improvement of the framework that the initiative brought to the permanent residents is a factor of stabilization in this village where the tradition of emigration is old.

b) «Biomass Heating contractor off the year 2000 », a national competition

Since the Nineties, several communes in Finland started to invest in systems of heating functioning with the biomass for the communities, such as the schools or the old people's homes. At the same time, of the farmers made of new agricultural companies, « heating contractors », which provides energy starting from wood. One « heating company » can be a co-operative, a limited company, an amalgamation or individual, which sells energy. These companies generally have a local activity and the principal fuel is wood. The fuel comes from the forest of the company or a close forest. At the end of 1999, surroundings eighty companies produced energy for the municipal buildings or of industries.

Company VTT Energy, principal partner of the competition, in co-operation with Justified, information center of Finnish energy, and the ministry for the trade and L '' industry organized a competition national which bears the name of : «Biomass Heating Entrepeneur off the year 2000 »^38(*).

This competition supports the local entreuprenariat, the use of wood coming from close forests like fuel and the creation of jobs, in particular in rural medium.

The principal objective of this competition is to promote the entreupenariat in the field of energy and to put it at the row of a true industry. This industry comprises certain advantages :

One of the ambitions of this competition is to increase the number of plants usable like fuels. There exists for the moment 100 varieties of energy plants. The competition wishes to make pass this figure to 1.500 plants in ten years.

In order to find the best projects, VTT Energy suggested A Motiva organizing a national competition, first took place on April 11, 2000, with at the same time a conference. This competition should take place during three years.

3- Costs and financing of the projects

This objective of doubling on behalf of renewable energies in the European energy balance forms part of a strategy of security of supply and durable development. It asks a great effort however. The investments necessary to achieve this goal were thus estimated by the Commission to 165 billion euro between 1997 and 2010.

The cost of many techniques of exploitation of renewable energies strongly decreased these last years and there is many cases where these sources of energy are from now on competing, and even constitute the most economic option.

But often, they remain more expensive than the other forms of energy in particular because the real cost of these last is not entirely taken into account. The research of the financings is thus a crucial question.

The activities of development of renewable energies which require a strong co-operation between the rural companies and of the partners external with the area, can be particularly advantageous for a rural territory. They are integrated well in a durable strategy of development and can create an action leverage and of drive for other initiatives.

The possibilities of support and financing as regards renewable energies are increasingly important at the regional, national or Community level. The White Paper precise : « within the framework of the future policy of rural development, the Commission will encourage the Member States and the areas to give to the projects of renewable energies a higher priority within their programs in favor of the rural zones »^39(*). The opening to the competition of the sectors of gas and electricity will allow to the renewable producers energies to sell directly with the customers.

The viability of the renewable project of energy will depend on the answer to certain key questions such as the cost planned for the construction, how electricity will be sold and at which price, how the project will be financed and which output can be awaited investment. The cost of many techniques of exploitation of renewable energies strongly decreased these last years and the renewable ones become competing. Certain costs are inherent in the preparation of the project that this one succeeds or not. Even if the results of the preliminary study are positive and that the project is implemented, the expenditure will normally not be recovered in the form of premiums or of subsidies, but by the long-term operating profits. These inherent costs are related on the identification of the project and the location of the site, with the examination of pre-feasibility, the feasibility study, the negotiations and the attribution of the contracts, and the follow-up check procedures of the site.

Moreover, to stick upon the departure defining the risks will allow the parts implied to minimize them before even as begins the project. It is important to identify the specific risks related to each stage and to distribute them in a suitable way. Among the most current risks, one can quote amongst other things the technological problems, the non-observance of the times of construction, the faulty operation of the equipment, the risks of the market of energy. To quantify and distribute the risks to reduce them are often the most effective strategy to reduce the cost of the insurances.

The majority of the projects of renewable energy require important capital and require a consequent financing good before the launching of the operations. It is not very probable that this financing could be entirely available, from where a recourse to the loan. Unfortunately, the small projects can test difficulties of interesting lenders and investors. The financial arrangement often takes much time, time generally underestimated by the carriers of projects. According to the information received from « Biomass Information-Zentrum » from Stuttgart in Germany^40(*), even if each project is different, one can distinguish five possible ways to reach the financing :

· the personal economies, except for micro the projects, it is not very probable that the reserves of an individual or a company could cover all the costs of the project

· financing of projects with guarantees limited to future flows of treasury rather than simply on the installations

There are also European sources of financing. The principal programs of the European Union which support the development of renewable energies are :

· TO ALTERNATE, this program, managed by the Directorate-General of the energy of the European Commission, aims at promoting the use of the renewable sources of energy in Europe. Of indicative type, it envisages pilot actions to create or develop the infrastructures of exploitation of renewable energies, actions of promotion and diffusion, actions targeted aiming facilitating the access to the markets and at encouraging the investments, of measurements of follow-up and assistance. No financial assistance is granted individual projects in theory, the transnational co-operation is an essential criterion

· 5th Outline programme of research, of technological development and demonstration 1998-2002, it envisages financings for projects of RDT (research, development and technology) and thus does not constitute a suitable instrument for the majority of the rural situations. Transnational dimension is necessary, just as the use of a pré-compétitive technology. The financial assistance is limited to 35% for the projects of demonstration (50% for the projects of RDT). This new program replaces the programs MEGACAL and JOULE implemented within the framework of the 4th outline programme

· Other Community devices, other Community programs are interested in the biomass, of which FAIR which aims at promoting research in agriculture and sylviculture (including as regards biomass) and also LIFE, which sticks to the environmental impact of a series of activity among which agriculture and forest industry. One can moreover make call in certain cases with programs SAVE (rational use of energy) and SYNERGY (assistance with the reinforcement of the international energy co-operation)

Certain funds intended for the rural development with the title of objective 1 and objective 3 (Appendix 10) were also used for projects of renewable energy.

The national devices can also finance the renewable projects of energy. Many possibilities of financing in favor of renewable energies exist in the Member States and areas. It should be specified that the regulations intended to stimulate the renewable energy sector strongly vary from one area to another.

5- Obstacles with the development of the renewable ones

a) Obstacles with the production

Whatever the renewable source of energy considered, there are obstacles of a structural nature to the development. The economic and social system was conceived and developed in a centralized way goshawks of conventional energies, like coal, oil, the natural gas and the nuclear power, and especially goshawks of the electric production.

But the most important problem is of a financial nature. Certain renewable energies need starting investment important, like coal, oil and the nuclear power profited from it before. The green Book of the Commission^41(*) suggests one of the possibilities of financing of the renewable ones. The most advantageous sources of energy, the nuclear power, oil, the gas, could be subjected to a form of contribution to the development of renewable energies. This contribution could be a tax which would finance funds regional or national for the starting investments necessary.

Lastly, the problem of the regulations also slows down the development of renewable energies. It is a question of trying to harmonize the payments of town planning and occupation of the grounds in order to give the priority to the production of renewable. It is rather paradoxical to note that at the beginning of the development of the nuclear power, the populations had not been able to make opposition to the installation of a nuclear engine whereas today they are able to block the development of the installations for the renewable ones.

Moreover, contrary to the majority of renewable energies, the biomass is characterized by high costs of exploitation and an important fuel consumption. The supply fuel is thus crucial to make profitable the projects. The distance with the place of use and the reliability of the provisioning are important parameters. The type of selected fuel can also play a great part, just as the technology implemented and the characteristics of the territory of the projects.

The economic viability of the projects exploiting the biomass clearly improved in many countries during last years ; countries like Austria and Denmark make a considerable use of it since years.

The risks associated with the exploitation with the biomass relate to the transport of fuel and waste, the variations heating of fuel, the storage of this one, the failure of a supplier (generally a farmer), the diseases or the imponderable climatic ones.

b) Obstacles with the use

In the European Union, the share of the biocarburants is still weak, it amounts to 0,15% of the overall consumption of combustible mineral oils in 1998. The principal obstacle with their use is the differential of price with the fossil fuel which varies for the moment of 1,5, for the diesel bio, to 4 for the products net of tax. Within the framework of the objective of doubling on behalf of renewable energies for 2010, the Commission evaluated in its White Paper of 1997 on the renewable sources of energies^42(*), the contribution of the bioénergie to 7% of the overall consumption from here 2010. It was then stressed that such an increase could take place only if the following conditions were met :

· the Member States should be committed in a firm way achieving the goal ambitious and realistic White Paper for the year 2010, is 7% of the biocarburants and to lay down an objective of 20% per 2020 for the whole of the fuels of substitution

· the difference between the prices of the biocarburants and those of the competing products should be reduced by measurements which, initially, could be of a tax nature

· the oil companies should be committed rather facilitating their distribution on a large scale within the framework of voluntary agreements than in that of Community regulation

V- Prospects for widening : the opening to the PECO

1- The energy situation

The applicant countries are not distinguished from the Union in comparison with the long-term evolution of their consumption even if they currently show an unquestionable delay in energy saving. However, the period of exceeded crisis, they seem subjected to a stronger pressure of the growth of the request for energy because, in particular, of an economic growth at the horizon 2010 which will be appreciably higher than that awaited in the Member States (between 3 to 6% per annum vis-a-vis that of the Union from 2 to 4% per annum). This transitional period could be an advisability for these countries of modernizing their energy systems. The growth of the energy demand of transport will be even larger. After widening, the Union will have to ensure the mobility of more than 170 million additional inhabitants on an increased territory of 1,86 million km2. Taking into account the variation of development ave the Union, one can expect a strong dynamics of correction, according to current tendencies', one thus envisages an economic growth of the applicant countries twice higher than that of Europe of the 15, is per annum approximately 5 to 6% during ten next years. Its corollary is the foreseeable increase in the request for transport.

The consumption of all confused energies of the PECO is 285 million tons oil equivalent, for a production of 164 million tons oil equivalent.

2- International energy co-operation

After the crisis of 1973, in fact the United States made the decision to join together in Washington, in February 1974, a conference whose work led to the conclusion of the International agreement on energy and to creation at OECD of the International Energy Agency. Signed on November 18, 1974, by the Member States of OECD, the Agreement on an international program of energy came into effect on January 19, 1976. It is about a vast programme of co-operation which aims at ensuring, in the event of crisis, a common level of autonomy of the supplies oil and to implement a program of long-term co-operation in order to reduce the dependence with regard to the oil imports and to promote the relations of co-operation between producer countries and consumer countries.

More promising appears to be the European charter of the energy, which establishes the principles, the objectives and the means of a co-operation paneuropéenne in the field of energy. Signed on December 17, 1991 in The Hague by almost all the European countries like by the Community, the United States, Canada and Japan, the charter are in fact a code of good control. This co-operation paneuropéenne is helped by the program HEADLIGHT intended for the Central European country and Eastern and by program TACIS, applicable to the States independent of the old Soviet Union. The programmes of technical aid in the field of energy cover the design and the planning of the energy policy of these countries, supply and energy demand, the price and tariffing system, energy saving, the interconnection of the East-West networks, the formation, the environmental protection, the reorganization of energy industry and nuclear safety. In this context, an agreement was concluded between the EC and Poland in the oil field^43(*). Energy and nuclear safety also appear in the European agreements concluded with the PECO in preparation from their adhesion in the EU. Several energy centers, created in the PECO thanks to the Community programs, are used as points of contact between the economic operators of these countries and the industry of the EU.

3- The role of energy diversification

These last years, the demand for electricity increased more quickly than all the other forms of energy. The prospects for growth of the applicant countries are still higher than those of the Member States. Electricity should increase by 3% per annum^44(*) from here 2020. In the applicant countries, the rate of replacement or the modernization of the outputs electric, difficult to evaluate, should be important in reasons of the obscôlenscence of a great part of the park. In theory, the park of power stations, whose capacity is for the time being surplus, should be largely modernized and part of the fed power stations with solid fuels is likely to be replaced by power stations with gas. However, an increase in the prices of gas on the international market could slow down the decisions of investment and to support maintains it on the one hand solid fuels and nuclear power in these countries.

The development of the nuclear power is conditioned by the efforts authorized as regards safety in the countries concerned. It is observed that in the applicant countries, the share of the nuclear power decreases in mix energetics and would currently pass from 15% to 8,1% about 2020^45(*).

Renewable energies as the firewood or the hydroelectricity occupies a modest place in our economies. They represent a more significant share in the applicant countries.

CONCLUSION

The Community framework is rather favourable with the installation of renewable energies on a level largely higher than that which they currently know. Indeed, as well the European energy policy as the common agricultural policy envisages a greater place for the biomass, as well on the level of the use in the domestic market of energy as in the culture or the collection.

The European situation is worrying, the European Union is increasingly dependant énergétiquement and its agriculture is badly. The demand and the requirements for energy do nothing but increase and the agricultural world is in full change. The structures change and reduce the number of employment, worsen the economic situation of the farmers and the people living of agriculture. The biomass then seems a solution, a remedy for these two evils. It seems to be the ideal culture to cure the problems of employment in the rural zones and a solution to decrease the energy dependence.

The objectives are clear and do not seem too utopian since several countries already set up industrial structures using the biomass like source of energy, as well of heat of electricity. The European Union founded supplementary programmes in order to stimulate the use of this source of renewable energy, the costs of the techniques of use of the biomass being very high. What constitutes an obstacle with the production and any thing being equal, an obstacle with the use, the price the consumer being itself high.

Unfortunately, the opening to the applicant countries does not constitute any prospect for improvement of the energy and agricultural situation. They are, very as much as the European Union, depending énergétiquement and their agriculture goes, it also to undergo modifications for adhesion with the European Union. However their share of use of renewable energies, in particular of the biomass, constitutes a share more significant than in Europe of the fifteen.

Some ones of the ecological problems simplest were solved. The problems of the future are much less easily included/understood, less easily controlled. These problems are the natural consequences of a company where the individuals and the groups do not take account of the incidences of their actions on the environment, of a company which always acts as if the resources of the ground were indefinitely renewable. However the durable development is one « development which meets the present needs without compromising the capacity of the future generations to meet their own needs »^46(*).

The actions of today will dictate the environmental quality and the economic durable development. No country can reach only the durable development, but the European Union hopes to be able to present models of durable behavior which will be useful models for collaboration between States.

Energy is of primary importance for the economic and social development, but its production and its consumption can have a considerable incidence on the environment. The biomass is a largely widespread resource, whose valorization is of double interest to exploit an important source of renewable energy and to contribute to the efforts made to face the climatic changes, with the energy dependence and the rural development.

Water mills, wind, firewood, animal haulage, sailing boat: renewable energies largely contributed to the development of humanity since the night of times. It constituted an economic activity with whole share, in particular in rural medium where they also important and were as diversified as the food production. One of the characteristics of the industrial revolution, the replacement of traditional renewable energies by the fossils (coal initially, oil later), gummed this role. It is only while entering the XXe century that renewable energies lost their primacy... before finding it with 21st?

THANKS

I make a point of thanking all the people who took part in this enthralling work by listening to me, advising me and by encouraging me, by opening their doors to me and sometimes also their memories, and while agreeing to agree to lend itself to the ritual talks in this July 2001.

I would like to thus greet Mr. Luc-Domenica Bernard for his methodological councils.

I would also like to say large a thank you to all those which had the kindness to grant a little their time to me, to know to them, of their experiment, namely : Mrs. Catherine Gabillard of the CIELE (information center on energy and the environment) for her documentary references, Mrs. Beatriz Yordi of the European Commission (general direction transport and energy), Mr. Alain van Leckwyck of the International LIOR (the leading information reference in sustainable technologies), Nelly Bandarra Jazra of the European Commission (general direction of agriculture in the direction rural development), Mrs. Irmeli Mikkonen of JUSTIFIED (Finish Energy Information Centers for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sources), Mr. Frederique Boulbes, agricultural technician with the agricultural cooperative of Loulay in France, Mr. Guy Fichet, farmer in Two-Sevres, as in Oliver Hess for supports technical and material.

I regret not having been able to have contact with the ADEME and the AEBIOM which I however requested several times, their point of view on this question would have been useful to me.

I also make a point of announcing that « the least polluting energy is that which one consumes »^47(*).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

- Bio-cost: impact off different national biomass policies one investment cost, www.eva.ac.at, consulted the 06/03/01

- Top priority and Community Initiatives of the structural Funds 2000-2006 (Them), http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy/activity, consulted the 15/04/01

- Sources of renewable energy, sources of durable, Rural development Europe, www.rural-europe.aeidl.be, consulted the 20/02/01

- Renewable European energy balance (It), EuroObserv' ER, www.systemes-solaires.com, Solar systems N°137- 2000 (newspaper Internet)

- renewable Waste-energies: Brussels authorizes the French assistances, the Echoes of the 13/12/00

- Environment for Europeans, magazine of the DG Environnement N°4, October 2000

- Environment for Europeans, magazine of the DG Environnement N°5, November 2000

- Neue Studie zeigt tatsächliche Kosten der Stromerzeugung in Europa, Luxembourg Wort it voice of Luxembourg, 06.08.01

- Antworten, BIZ, Biomass Information-Zentrum, Insitut für Energiewirtschaft und rational Energianwendung, Stuttgart, 2000

- Biomass, year energy resource for the European Union, European commission, Official publication, 2000

- Communication of the commission, « Energy for the future: renewable sources of energy », Delivers white establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, COM (97) 599 final of the 26/11/97

- Countryside for the takeoff of the renewable sources of energy, Directorate-General Transport and energy, document of the Commission departments, 1997

- Directive 2000/0116 one the promotion off electricity from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market, European parliament and council, COM (2000) 279 final of the 10/05/00

- Economic foundations for energy policy, European commission, Official publication, December 1999

- 66/22/Euratom: 2nd recommendation of the Commission to the Member States, Official Journal 136 of the 25/07/1966

- European Union Policy For Renewable Energy Sources, Directorate-General transport and energy, Official publication, September 1999

- Rational Finanzierung und Förderung, Institute für Energiewirtschaft und Energieanwendung, Stuttgart, 2000

- Deliver green for a Community strategy, « energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », European Commission, Official publication, 1997

- Gilbert Christmas, the CAP, document delivered with the students Euro 3404, academic year 2000-2001

- Policy of energy, Access to the European Union, NR. Moussis, 9th revised edition

- Rural Europe, « renewable sources of energy, sources of durable development », European Commission, AEIDL 1999

- European union and environment, European Commission, European Commission, Official publication, October 1997

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: HAVE energy importation dependancy, EU-15 (1995-2020)

Sources : PREMIUMS in Economic foundations for energy policy , European commission

Appendix 2: Article [39] 33 TCE

2. to ensure of the reasonable prices in the deliveries the consumers In the development of the common agricultural policy and the special methods that it can imply, it will be held account :

Appendix 3 : Leaves renewable energies in the primary consumption of energy of the EU (in %)

Appendix 4 : The share of the renewable sources of energy (SER) in the consumption and the energy production

Appendix 5 : Ventilation of the contribution of the renewable sources of energy

*(in mtoe)*	*1989* *(UE-15)*	*1996* *(UE-15)*	*% 89-96*	*1996* *(The USA)*
Contribution of the SER don' T:	64,3	75,1	17%	114,8
biomass/waste	40,1	46,7	17%	70,7
% of biomass/waste	62%	63%		62%
hydraulic power	21,9	24,9	14%	30,2
% of hydraulic power	34%	33%		26%
geothermal energy	2,2	2,7	23%	13,5
% of geothermal energy	3%	4%		12%
wind power	0,046	0,418	809%	0,293
% of wind power	0,1%	0,6%		0,3%
solar energy	0,144	0,298	107%	0,078
% of solar energy	0,2%	0,4%		0,1%

Appendix 6 : Energy production starting from wood-energy in the European Convention countries in 1999

*Country*	Production Heat	Production electricity	Total in GWh in 1999
France	106 906	2 019	108 925
Sweden	68 443	11 727	80 170
Italy	76 100	750	76 850
Austria	26 800	1 500	28 300
Denmark	7 100	500	7 600
Germany	14 000	195	14 195
Finland	49 500	7 000	56 500
Remain of the EU	86 020	7 480	93 500
Total EU	434 869	31 171	466 040

Appendix 7 : Energy production starting from biogas in the European Union

Appendix 8 : Comparison between the current tendency and the objectives of the White Paper for the production of biocarurant in the European Union

Appendix 9 : European objectives of development of the biomass by 2003 and 2010

Appendix 10 : objectives of EAGGF

Objective 1

Development and adjustment structural of backward region of development (135,9 billion euros)

· areas whose GDP per capita is lower than 75% of the Community average;

· Finnish and Swedish areas concerned with old Objective 6 (development of zones very little populated)

· peripheral ultra areas (French departments of overseas, the Canary Islands, the Azores and Madeira)

Objective 2

Economic and social reconversion of the zones in structural difficulty (22,5 billion euros)

Industrial parks
The eligible zones of level NUTS III^48(*) observe the three following conditions:

· a rate of unemployment higher than the Community average;

· a percentage of industrial employment higher than the Community average

· a decline of industrial employment

Rural zones
The eligible zones of level NUTS III respect two of the four following coupled criteria:

· a density of population lower than 100 inhabitants with the km ² or a rate of agricultural employment equal or higher than the double of the Community average

· a rate of unemployment higher than the Community average or a reduction in the population.

Urban zones
The eligible zones answer the one of the 5 following conditions:

· a rate of unemployment of long superior duration to the Community average;

· a high level of poverty;

· an environment particularly degraded;

· a high rate of criminality;

· a low level of education.

Zones dependant on fishings
The eligible zones must have at the same time a rate of important employment in the fisheries sector and a significant fall of employment in this sector.

Other zones
(maximum 50% in each State concerned)
Eligibility with Objective 2 extends to:

· certain zones contiguous to eligible areas with Objective 1 or the industrial and rural parks of Objective 2;

· rural zones knowing a significant ageing or a major reduction in the farming population;

· zones confronted withserious problems structural or a rate of unemployment raised following the reorganization of one or more determining activities in the sectors agricultural, industrial or of services.

Objective 3

Adaptation and modernization of the policies and systems of education, training and employment (24,05 billion euros)

The regulation takes into account the whole of the policies, practices and needs for the Member States according to their national plan for employment. Over the period 2000-2006, Objective 3 thus covers a broad range of interventions aiming :

· the promotion of the active policies of the labor market to fight unemployment;

· the promotion of accessibility at the labor market with a detailed attention for the people threatened of social exclusion;

· reinforcement of the employability thanks to the systems of education and continuous training;

· the promotion of measurements to anticipate and facilitate the adaptation to the economic and social changes;

· the promotion of the equal opportunity for the men and the women.

· Measurements of Objective 3 covers the whole of the European territory; in the areas of Objective 1, they are integrated in the programming with other measurements of development and structural adjustments.

Appendix 11 : The share of the number of employment in agriculture on the total number of employment, expressed as a percentage, in 1997

Appendix 12 : Evolution of employment in the sector of agriculture and agro-alimentary, expressed in million people, for the EU, of 1983 to 1997

Appendix 13 : Evolution of the number of exploitation and the nonfamily agricultural labor, expressed as a percentage, between 1990 and 1995

EL, E, IRL and I: a number of exploitations in 1993 instead of 1995, IRL and I: nonfamily agricultural labor in 1993 instead of 1995, A, END, S, the U.K.: data nonavailable

Appendix 14: Agricultural surface devoted to the nonfood productions in the EU, expressed in thousands of hectares, by annual countryside

	UE-12				UE-15
	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998
Nonfood cultures	952	1026	1227	1192	1177	1310	1430	1524	1685
Cotton	352	311	397	383	423	473	502	510	508
Cotton (investigation structure of the exploitations)	272	-	-	357	-	441	-
Flax	79	55	44	52	89	104	132	133	166
Hemp	4	5	5	7	8	10	14	23	42
Linseeds oilseeds	42	121	265	205	88	125	171	224	314
Corn^{(1) (2)}	131	133^(E)	142^(E)	150	160	180	175	205	245
Corn^{(1) (2)}	240	269^(E)	246^(E)	250	265	265	265	265	245
Potatoes^{(1) (2)}	84	109^(E)	105^(E)	119	120	120	140	133	133
Sugar beet⁽³⁾	20	23^(E)	23^(E)	26	24	33	31	31	32
Nonfood cultures on cold grounds	-	-	-	242	707	1045	672	393	417
Cole-seeds	-	-	-	172	479	825	571	311	354
Seeds of sunflower	-	-	-	32	138	144	89	82	61
Linseeds	-	-	-	22	59	28	0	0	0
Cereals	-	-	-	9	16	18	18^(E)	18^(E)	18^(E)
Sugar beet	-	-	-	1	6	6	12^(E)	12^(E)	12^(E)
Plants with short rotation	-	-	-	0	0	14	18	18	19
Medicinal plants	-	-	-	4	6	6	6^(E)	6^(E)	6^(E)
Others	-	-	-	2	3	4	4^(E)	4^(E)	4^(E)
TOTAL of the cultures nonfood	952	1026	1227	1434	1884	2351	2090	1917	2105
% of cultures nonfood on cold grounds	-	-	-	17%	38%	44%	32%	21%	20%

⁽¹⁾ apart from the mode of freezing of the 5 year old grounds
⁽²⁾ within the framework of the mode of the restitutions for the starch
⁽³⁾ within the framework of the mode of the restitutions for the sugar used in the chemical industry
^(E) estimate

Appendix 15 : The ventilation of the contribution of the biomass

*(in mtoe)*	*1989*	*% SER*	*1996*	*% SER*	*% 89-96*
Biomass/waste of which:	40,1	62%	46,7	62%	17%
drink for the households	21,1	33%	22,5	30%	7%
drink for industry	8,3	13%	7,2	10%	- 13%
power stations	5,9	9%	9,1	12%	54%
urban solid waste	3,6	6%	5,1	7%	42%
biogas	0,7	1%	1,4	2%	100%
district heating	0,4	1%	1,3	2%	225%
biocombustibles liquid	0	0%	0,1	0%	-

Appendix 16: detailed data concerning the production of firewood (UE-15)

Appendix 17: Evolution of the exploitation of the renewable sources of energy on the cold grounds

Appendix 18 : Indicative estimate of the public financing for the takeoff campaign of the renewable sources of energy (1999-2003) in the EU

Key sectors of the countryside	Estimated total investment (billion euros)	Fork of financing (%)	Average rate of financing (%)	Indicative estimate of the total public financing (billion euros)
Photovoltaic systems (EU)	2,85	35-80	45	1,2825
Photovoltaic systems in the developing countries^49(*)	(2,45)	-	-	-
Solar collectors	4,7	0-30	15	0,705
Wind turbines	10,1	10-40	20	2,02
Biomass (combined production heat electricity)	5,5	20-60	30	1,65
Domestic heating	4,4	0-20	10	0,44
Biogas	1,2	20-40	25	0,3
Biocombustible	1,25	30-70	50	0,625
Total	30,05	-	-	7

It comes out from these calculations that an indicative public financing of 7 billion euros over the duration of the countryside would be necessary to cause the total investment of 30 billion euro which must be carried out to achieve the goals

Appendix 20 : Diagram of operation of the Power station of the Mould

* ⁵ Deliver green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future: renewable sources of energy », p 3

* ⁶ Gilbert Christmas, the Common agricultural policy, document delivered with the students of Euro 3404

* ⁷ Reform CAP : a policy of the future, document of the Directorate-General of agriculture

* ⁹ the radiant intensity is an indicator of consumption of energy reported to the GDP

* ¹⁰ Deliver green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », European Commission, p 6

* ¹⁴ Deliver green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », p 31

* ¹⁵ COM (2000) 279 of the 10.05.2000, «Directive one the promotion off electricity from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market», European parliament and Council

* ¹⁶ COM (97) 599 of the 26.11.1997 « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy »- White Paper establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, European Commission

* ¹⁷ EurObserv' ER, barometers of renewable energies, re-examined Solar systems N°137- 2000, p.60

* ¹⁸ this objective is defined in the Official Journal of the European Communities C241 of September 25, 1986

* ¹⁹ Deliver Vert for a Community strategy, Energie for the future : sources of renewable energy, p 47

* ²² The cogeneration : it is the simultaneous production of electricity and heat. The cogeneration can be carried out starting from any fuel. The gases coming from combustion are used to actuate a turbine and thus to produce electricity. The total outputs often exceed 80%.

* ²⁴ EurObserv' ER, the barometer of renewable energies, Solar system N° 137- 2000, p58

* ²⁵ Deliver green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », p 13

* ²⁷ Definition of the illustrated Petit Robert, woody cultures « are the cultures which come from wood », p 840

* ²⁸ COM (97) 599 final of the 26.11.1997, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy »- White Paper establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, European Commission, p7

* ²⁹ Definition of the illustrated Petit Robert : « of the family of the starch », p 50

* ³¹ COM (97) 599 final of the 26.11.1997, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy »- White Paper establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, European Commission, p 15

* ³² Document of the Commission departments, Countryside for the takeoff of the sources of renewable energy, p 18

* ³⁴ Council Decision concerning a multiannual program for the promotion of the renewable sources of energy in the Community (ALTENER II) (98/352/EC) Official Journal L159/53 of the 03.06.98

* ³⁵ document Internet, http://www.ademe.fr/guadeloupe/Bagcharb.htm, consulted the 06.03.01

* ³⁶ world leader of technology bagasse-coal and specialist in the cogeneration in industry.

* ³⁹ COM (97) 599 final of the 26.11.1997, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy »- White Paper establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, European Commission, p 26

* ⁴¹ Deliver green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », European Commission

* ⁴² COM (97) 599 of November 26, 1997, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy »- White Paper establishing a strategy and a Community action plan, European Commission

* ⁴⁴ European Energy Outlook to 2020: figures on the basis of 7 Central European country other than Bulgaria, the Slovak Republic and Romania

* ⁴⁵ This rate takes account at the same time of the growth of the request and of the forecasts of closing and modernization of the nuclear thermal power stations, Livre green for a Community strategy, « Energy for the future : renewable sources of energy », p31

* ⁴⁶ World Commission Report on the environment and the development (Brundtland Commission)

* ⁴⁸ The nomenclature of the statistical territorial units (NUTS) was created by the European Office of the Eurostat statistics in order to have a single and coherent diagram of territorial distribution. There are 1093 territories of level NUTS 3